Full text of "A laboratory manual of anthropometry"

A LABORATORY MANUAL

ANTHROPOMETRY
WILDER

LABORATORY MANUAL

ANTHROPOMETRY

f BY

HARRIS H! WILDER, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY,
SMITH COLLEGE, NORTHAMPTON, MASS.

WITH 43 ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILADELPHIA
P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO.

1012 WALNUT STREET

THK MAIr,K TRESS YORK Y JL

PREFACE

It has long been a reproach to American science that now, for many
years, the branch of Physical Anthropology has been so little cultivated,
and this the more because of our early prestige in this very field and be-
cause of our unrivalled opportunities.

When Morton, in 1839, published his Crania Americana, and followed
this in 1844 by a similar work, the Crania Aegyptiaca, he gave the United
States a leading place in the then new science of Craniology, but now
after eighty years, in this and in related fields, American names are as
rare in bibliographies as American merchant ships have been until recently
upon the high seas. With the vast possibilities for ethnological study
furnished by our aborigines, with the importation in the past of large
numbers of negroes from Africa, which are now numbered by millions,
and with the hordes of alien peoples from all parts of the world, who seek
a foothold in the still new continent, not even Rome herself, in Imperial
times, could supply such enormous ethnological material, yet the advan-
tages taken of such opportunities have been but slight. Every large
European power, and at least one Asiatic one (Japan), has surpassed the
United States in Anthropometric work. In this line of Anthropometry,
or Biometric Ethnology, especially, unheeded by and almost unknown to,
American science, a great body of facts has been compiled in Europe, the
facts being obtained by means of European instruments, collected by
means of European technical methods, and rendered significant by means
of European scholarship.

Some twenty years ago the growing need of unifying the technical
measurements, at least those most commonly employed, became more and
more apparent, and led to the adoption of a set of prescriptions governing
the more important measurements of the skull, and of the head and facial
features in the living. This was established at the meeting of 1906
of the International Congress of Anthropologists, held at Monaco, and
the Committee consisted of representatives of France, Germany, Switzer-
land and Italy, but neither England nor America. The official report was
in French by the Secretary, M. Papillault, and was published in the
periodical L'Anthropologie. The movement towards a standardization
of measurements excited a continually increasing interest, and its next
official manifestation came at the Congress of the same body in 1912,
meeting at Geneva. The Committee which prepared this report was a
larger one (24 members), and included, beside the countries represented at
the former one, Spain, Russia, Great Britain, Russian Poland, Hungary
and the United States. This second report consisted of standardized

VI PREFACE

measurements ol the living body, exclusive of the head and face, which
had been treated in 1906, and was published officially in foar languages,
French, German, Italian, and English, but the periodicals in which these
reports appeared were exclusively European, and the first American re-
printing was during the present year (1919), when the reports of both
Congresses appeared in our new Journal of Physical Anthropology, whose
serial date (Vol. II) suggests the previous years of neglect of this science
in our country.

It was with a view to directing a broader American attention to this
vitally important branch of Anthropology that the present author, some-
time previous to 1912, drew up, based largel} 7 upon the prescription of
1906, a set of rules for the guidance of the laboratory student, principally
along the line of craniometry, and this manuscript was worked over by
his advanced students and himself, accompanying the actual measurement
of skulls. The appearance of the second set of rules, the prescription of
1912, enabled him to add the authoritative rules for the principal measure-
ments of the living body. Thus the work, tested in the laboratory by
practical application, assumed somewhere near its present form.

The granting of a Sabbatical leave in 1913 by the Trustees of Smith
College enabled the author to visit several of the European laboratories,
where he had the opportunity of inspecting the practical anthropometric
work carried on by some of the leading investigators in this field. He
here takes this opportunity of expressing his sincere thanks to them all,
who, in the midst of a busy term, found time to demonstrate to him their
equipment and especially their personal technical methods by actual
measurements. These include Prof. Fabio Frassetto in Bologna, Prof.
Otto Schlaginhaufen, the pupil and successor of Prof. Rudolf Martin in
Zurich, and especially Prof. Eugen Fischer in Freiburg in Breisgau, in
whose anthropological laboratory he spent several weeks.

In 1914 appeared the long-awaited book of Prof. Martin, the "Lehr-
buch der Anthropologie, " only a few months before the bursting of the
storm-cloud of a well-nigh universal World War, since which communica-
tion between the anthropologists of the two hemispheres became, for
four years, all but interrupted. At best, however, this exhaustive text-
book as it is large and expensive, and in the German language, is more or
less impractical for the average American student, and while of the great-
est value to specialists, it does not fill the needs of American Colleges and
Universities, at least so far as undergraduates are concerned. These
conditions caused the decision to publish the present volume, which has
again been thoroughly revised, and is now offered in a somewhat simplified
form. It consists primarily of the rules for measurements given in the
two prescriptions of 1906 and 1912, and adds for the convenience of the
student certain of the most useful indices. An enumeration of instru-
ments, as employed in various places, is given in the introduction, to-
gether with a much simplified account of the most generally used mathe-

PREFACE Vll

matical methods employed in tabulating and expressing the results of
measurements, for the especial benefit of that large class of students
who find their chief interest in the morphological relations of the subjects
treated, but whose mathematical ability is not great, and who are not
able readily to follow the more abstruse methods and expositions of them
made use of by biometricians.

The student is introduced to the bibliography of the subject by a
series of footnotes, which are found under each heading, and are intended
to guide him to certain of the most important papers, generally the ones
especially followed in this book. From the bibliographies given here, in
their turn, a more complete knowledge of the literature may be obtained.

The main work is followed by two appendices, the one (A} giving the
actual measurements of 93 skulls and skull fragments of Indians from
Southern New England, the other (B) the bodily proportions of 100
Smith College Students, both sets of measurements the result of work car-
ried out in the Smith College Anthropological Laboratory by graduate
students. These may prove useful as samples of the kind of work treated
in this manual, and will be of interest to use in comparison with the re-
sults of the practical reader.

HARRIS HAWTHORNE WILDER, PH. D.

SMITH COLLEGE ANTHROPOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
Northampton, Mass.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1-33

\/ Historical Development of Anthropometry 1

Anthropometrical Instruments 8

Simple Biometrical Methods . . 26-33

-I. Indices 26

II. Frequency Curves 27

III. Arithmetical Mean 29

IV. Deviation 30

"V. Coefficient of Variation 32

PART I. OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OP THE BONES, INCLUDING THE
SKULL.

^1. The Skull 33-149

Orientation 35

Landmarks 40

Measurements 48

Indices 62

Angles 69

II. The Vertebral Column, with the Ribs and Sternum 76

III. Shoulder-girdle 80

Scapula 80

Clavicle 83

IV. Arm and Hand 84

Humerus 84

Ulna 88

Radius 98

The Bones of the Hand 105

V. The Pelvic Skeleton, including Hip-girdle and Sacrum 109

Pelvic Girdle 109

Sacrum 116

VI. The Bones of the Leg and Foot 122

Femur 122

Patella 129

Tibia 130

Fibula 136

The loot Skeleton in General 136

Talus 137

Calcaneus 140

The Other Tarsal Bones 142

The Metacarpals and Phalanges 143

Intermembral Indices 144

Relation of the lengths of Limb bones to Stature 147

X CONTENTS

PART II. SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY.

Landmarks 151

Measurements 155-163

(a) General Considerations; Position of Subject 155

(&) Lists of the Usual Measurements 158

Indices 164

APPENDIX A. MEASUREMENTS OF SKULLS OF ABORIGINES OF SOUTHERN NEW
ENGLAND 169-170

APPENDIX B. BODILY MEASUREMENTS OF ICO FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS 171-185

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

1. (a) Calipers (Craniometer) 9

(6) Slide compass 9

2. The Bertillon type of Craniometer 10

3. Flower's Craniometer 10

4. Martin's anthropometer, in case 11

5. Martin's anthropometer, as used in measuring 12

6. Broca's osteometric board 13

7. Mollison's attachable goniometer 14

8. Another view of the same 15

9. Another view of the same 16

10. Stationary goniometer of Martin 17

11. Parallelograph of Martin 18

12. Cubic craniophore of Martin; two views 21

13. Wetzel's osteophore 23

14. Lucae's dioptograph 24

15. Lissauer's perigraph 25

16. Broca's stereograph 25

17. Skull oriented at Camper's horizontal 36

18. Skull oriented at Geoff. St. Hilaire's horizontal 37

19. Skull oriented at Cloquet's horizontal 37

20. Skull oriented at the alveolo-condylar horizontal of Broca 38

21. Skull oriented at the Frankfort horizontal 39

22. Landmarks on the skull; frontal aspect 41

23. Landmarks on the skull; lateral aspect 42

24. Landmarks about region of eye and nose 43

25. Landmarks about the palate 44

26. Measures obtained from the median craniogram 46

27. Angles obtained upon a median craniogram 72

28. Angles obtained upon a median sawn section 75

29. Scapula, showing measurements 81

30. Clavicle, showing measurements 83

31. Humerus, showing measurements 85

32. Humerus, showing torsion 86

33. Ulna, showing curvature of shaft 91

34. Ulna, showing joint-axis angle 94

35. Lateral divergence angle of elbow 95

36. Curvature of shaft of radius 102

37. Median curve of sacrum 117

38. . Medial view of right tibia, showing axes and angles 132

39. Talus; showing measurements 139

40. Talus; showing measurements 139

41. Calcaneus; showing measurements 140

42. Calcaneus; showing measurements 141

43. Talo-calcaneus angle 143

INTRODUCTION

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE OF
ANTHROPOMETRY

When White in 1794, basing his assertions upon the observation of
both skeletons and living men, made the statement that the forearm of
negroes, in proportion to the upper arm, was longer than in white men,
he inaugurated the science of Comparative Racial Anthropometry, and
showed that there were constant differences in the bodily proportions of
the various human races. Differences of this sort seem to have been
unrecognized before this, even by artists and sculptors, who, although
from the time of the Egyptian and Assyrian carvings had elaborated and
even emphasized the racial characters of face and head, had given no
heed to differences in the other parts of the body. It is thus quite pos-
sible that the classic sculptors of Greece and Rome may have used indif-
ferently as models their own people and their foreign slaves, which may
serve to verify and explain the asserted negroid proportions of the Apollo
Belvidere.*

The assertion of White was an advance upon new ground, and
although it was accompanied by neither detailed measurements, calcula-
tion of averages, or indices, it was yet of great value in the development of
the subject. After this, however, the work rested for forty-four years,
when Humphrey, in 1838, made careful measurements, not only of
humerus and radius, but of femur and tibia also, in twenty-five skeletons
of negroes and the same number of those of white men. He compared
each individual length with the total height of the skeleton from which
it came, taken as 100, and thus obtained indices which could be directly
compared. His results corroborated White regarding the long forearm
(radius) of negroes, and found a similar greater length in the lower leg
(tibia) of the same race, as compared with the whites. He found, for
example, that the average humerus in the two races bore practically the
same proportion to the total height, 19.52% in negroes and 19.54% in
whites, while the figures for the radius, also expressed in a percentage of
the total height, were respectively 15.16% and 14.15%. In the same
way the figures for the femur were 27.40 and 27.51, a negligible differ-
ence, while those for the tibia were 23.23 and 22.15.

But by this time other anthropologists had become interested in
racial differences in bodily proportion, and under the critical scrutiny
of Broca this subject received still more careful treatment. He pointed

* Perhaps a Greek head on a negro body, as has often been asserted.

2 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

out the fact that a total height obtained from an articulated skeleton
depended too much upon the preparator who put the bones together, and
hence disregarded this uncertain measurement in favor of one involving
the length of a single long bone, or of two combined. He thus substi-
tuted for Humphrey's standard, now the length of the femur, now that of
the radius, or again the combined lengths of humerus and radius or femur
and tibia, with each of which, in turn, with a value of 100, the lengths of
the other long arm and leg bones was compared.

The next great advance in treating the general subject of racial
anthropometry was the realization of the fact that many of the bones
could be measured practically as well in the living subject by ascer-
taining the precise location of their termini by palpation; also that cer-
tain integumental landmarks, not associated with the skeleton, such as
the umbilicus and the nipples, were of considerable value in the study
of proportions. This line of work, the anthropometry of the living
subject, developed naturally in the field, as osteometry had developed in
the museum, and was the direct result of the series of great scientific
voyages, like those of the Novara and the Challenger, characteristic
of the last third of the Nineteenth Century. Naturally in the develop-
ment of physical ethnology the facial features had long received much
attention, and had become the subject of careful measurements, with aver-
ages and indices, and the extension of this work to the rest of the body
naturally followed.

During this epoch, in 1882, to be precise, a young anthropologist,
M. Alphonse Bertillon, noticing the individual character of bodily
measurements, saw in them important data for the solution of the many
difficulties which, up to this time, confronted the Judicial arm of the
French Government, that of establishing the individual identity of crimi-
nals, and inaugurated the famous system of "Bertillonage," based upon
eleven easily taken measurements, a system that has now for many years
yielded the most satisfactory results, and is still in general us , although
now being rapidly replaced by the Finger-print System of Galton and
Henry.*

The investigators of this period began by measuring the distances
between landmarks directly, that is, the lengths of the long bones from
end to end, as had been previously done with the shorter distances of the
head and face, but it was soon seen that if the subject were standing
erect, with heels together, in military position, it was necessary only to
ascertain the distance from the floor of each terminus, and obtain the
various required lengths by subtraction of one height from another,
thus sparing time to both subject and operator in the work of measuring,
at best a tedious process. This was naturally possible only when arms
and legs were held "straight," i.e., perpendicular to the floor, so that it is
always necessary for the subject to stand as erect as he can. Aside from

* WILDER and WENTWORTH: "Personal Identification." Badger, Boston, 1918.

INTRODUCTION 3

limb measurements, the same subtraction methods may be conveniently
used in ascertaining the difference in level between any two landmarks,
whether median or lateral; thus, between nipples and umbilicus, or be-
tween the incisural notch in the front of the neck and the iliac crest. The
distance thus ascertained is that between the two horizontal planes
passing through the landmarks in question, and thus all measurements
made in this way may be regarded as projections, or the point where hori-
zontal planes passing through the points measured strike an imaginary
line erected vertically, perpendicular to the floor.

Thus by the opening of the New Century anthropometry had already
become an important branch of anthropology, expressed in extensive and
rapidly increasing literature. Individual investigators, however, differed
widely, not only in the measurements employed, and in their relative
value, but in the manner in which these measurements were taken and
the instruments used, so that there could be little or no trustworthy
comparison between the results of different investigators. The ciencse
was thus ready for its next phase of development, the standardizing of
the measurements. This was first attempted in the case of the skull,
as craniometry had received the most attention and its measurements
were thus the most in need of standardizing, and came as the result
of the International Congress of Anthropologists meeting in Monaco
during April, 1906. The proposal for this came from the Committee of
the Congress, MM. Hamy, Papillault, and Verneau, and the work
was done by a special committee appointed for the purpose, MM. Giuff-
rida-Ruggeri, Hamy, Herv^, Lissauer, v. Luschan, Papillault, Pittard,
Pozzi, Sergi, Verneau, Waldeyer. The proposals presented by the
Committee (38 for the skull, and 19 for the living head and face) were
ratified by the Congress, and have thus become the set of standard skull
measurements, to be followed, so far as possible, by anthropometrists
everywhere.

A second standardization, that of measurements of the living body,
excluding the head, resulted in much the same way, from proposals ade
at the International Congress of 1912, which met at Geneva, Switzerland,
in September of that year.

The Committee consisted of 23 members, as follows: MM. Czek-
anowski, Duckworth, Frasetto, Giuffrida-Ruggeri, Godin, Hillebrand,
De Hoyos, Hrdlicka, Loth, v. Luschan, MacCurdy, Manouvrier, Marret,
Mayet, Mochi, Musgrove, Pittard, Rivet, Schlaginhaufen, G. Sergi,
Sollas, Volkov, Weissgerber. The increased interest in anthropometry
is shown in the larger size of the Committee as compared with that of
1906, and the spread of this interest to other countries is indicated by the
inclusion in it of representatives from England, Russia, Switzerland,
Spain, Hungary, and the United States (Hrdlicka and MacCurdy).
There were 49 separate measurements proposed by the Committee, and
these were, as in the previous case, unanimously voted by the Congress.

4 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

The anthropometry of the bones of the skeleton, aside from the skull,
has not as yet become subject to International Agreement, and is thus
still in the stage of craniometry just previous to 1906, that is, detailed
measurements have been worked out for the separate bones by different
investigators, but the work needs yet to be standardized and those meas-
urements selected which are generally considered essential.

If we except the pioneer work of Turner, who published his work on
the skeletons collected by the Challenger Expedition in 1886, the detailed
osteometry of the separate bones has been the work of the Twentieth
Century. The femur, naturally the first bone to receive special attention,
was first adequately measured, according to modern methods, by Leh-
mann-Nitsche in 1895, who included also some details of the tibia; but
the first thorough osteometric treatment of ulna and radius was delayed
until 1906, when it was presented by Fischer in a paper which may well
serve as a model for similar work. The pelvic girdle, with details of the
ossa coxae (ossa innominata), was well worked out in 1900 by Koganei
and Osawa, but for the completion of the bones of this immediate
region the world waited until Radlauer's work on the sacrum in 1908.
The modern treatment of the vertebral column, a difficult problem for the
osteometrist, was delayed until 1912, when it received competent treat-
ment by Hasebe. The skeleton of hand and foot may be treated as a
whole; or certain significant bones, especially those of carpus and tarsus
may be considered by themselves. Thus, for the foot skeleton as a whole,
there is the paper of Volkov in 1905, and that of M. and Mme. Adachi
of the same year; while for separate foot bones those of Sewell (1904-
1906) on the talus, of Manners-Smith on cuboid and naviculare (1907),
and of Reicher on the calcaneus (1913) may serve as examples.

It may thus be said that, at the outbreak of the European War, in
1914, the field of osteometry had just been covered as far as the first
blocking out of essential measurements for the separate bones, but that
no attempt has been made to establish a general agreement or to insure
universality in usage; still less has there been a sufficient number of
studies based upon the bones of the separate human races to form the
basis for much comparison. It is at this point that we may trust the
work will be resumed at the expiration of the Great War.

The employment of angular measurements, now an important part of
anthropometry, especially in the case of the bones, has had a course of
development closely similar to that of the linear measurements above
reviewed. The first angle employed was the famous "Facial Angle"
of Petras Camper, described in a posthumous work of this author, bearing
the date of 1780. This angle was drawn upon the lateral aspect (profile)
of skulls and living heads indifferently, and was that formed between a
line passing through the base of the nose and the auditory meatus, and
one roughly tangential to the profile. Camper found this angle to aver-
age 70 in Negroes, 80 in Europeans, 90 in classical Greek statues de-

INTRODUCTION 5

lineating mortals, and 100 in certain of their representations of gods.
On the other hand the apes, monkeys, and lower mammals gave angles
less than 70, in a decreasing series, so that this facial angle was roughly a
measure of the height of the forehead and hence indicative of the general
intelligence.

As with linear measurements, the Mid-Nineteenth Century, largely
under the leadership of Paul Broca, brought into use other angles, for
the most part those of the skull, while at the present times important
angular measurements have been established for many other bones.
Aside from single angles some anthropometrists make use of tri-
angles, quadrilaterals, and even higher polygons, mainly in connection
with mathematically drawn projections of bones upon a plane surface.
With the living body, in spite of the fact that the first angle used,
that of Camper, found here its main application, there are now few, if
any, angles in common anthropometric use, although certain ones
mainly those associated with the arm, leg, or foot, have a pathological
or orthopedic significance.

No International Congress has as yet attempted to establish or define
any prescribed angles for either the bones or the living body, and the
matter rests at present, as was the case with linear measurements previous
to 1906, with the individual investigators; certain obvious angles are
commonly employed, and with considerable uniformity in definition,
while others are devised by individual authors and used in bringing out
relationships the value of which has not as yet been thoroughly tested.
A distinct advantage of an angle over a linear measurement lies in the
fact that angles may be compared directly in individuals of different
size, and need no index; possible disadvantages are found in the uncer-
tainty of fixing the lines which describe them, and in the difficulty of
reading them accurately.

Concerning the actual value of anthropometric measurements, of
whatever sort, and the extent to which measurement may be profitably
carried, both opinion and practice differ widely. As in other forms of
biometrics, where mathematics plays an important part in the investiga-
tion of a primarily biological problem, certain investigators are bound to
be more interested in the mathematical than in the biological side, and
there is always danger that, in their hands, the latter cause may suffer,
and the work be viewed as a mathematical problem, in which the goal
is reached when the new relations involved are expressed in the form of
formulae and tables. Others, on the other hand, view Physical Anthro-
pology as wholly morphological, and place their reliance upon forms and
form-comparisons as revealed to the eye, being very wary about express-
ing any character in a mathematical form.

As an example of the mathematical extreme, of an anthropometrist
in whose hands the whole subject becomes an endless series of measure-
ments, we may take the Hungarian investigator, Dr. Aurel von Torok,

6 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

who, in his extensive text-book of Craniometry (Grundziige einer syste-
matischen Kraniometrie, Stuttgart, 1890) enumerates for the skull alone
no fewer than 5371 linear measurements and projections, together with
a proportionate number of indices, and many hundreds of angles, tri-
angles, polygons, etc. To him the goal of the anthropometrist appears
to be in part to make so complete a mathematical mensuration of a
given skull that it could be faithfully reproduced if destroyed, but in
great part also to seek every possible way in which such an object may
be measured. Is it any wonder that to him the complete and satisfactory
measurement of a single skull is a sufficient subject for a Doctor's
thesis ?

Quite the opposite view is that of the veteran Roman anthropologist,
Giuseppe Sergi, who urges the study of varying shapes by the method
usually employed by the zoologist and anatomist, that is, mainly by the
eye. In commenting, for instance, upon the sorting out of European
head types by the length-breadth indices of the cranium, a very obvious
and elementary sort of anthropometry, he asks how many species of lark
we should get if the ornithologist should attempt to separate them by
the ingenious method of measuring the total length from tip of beak
to tail and divide this by the wing-spread. He counsels the application
of what he calls the "zoological" rather than the anthropometric method
to the study of racial skulls, and thinks that one should learn to dis-
tinguish them by characters that one can perceive without measurement.
"As a zoologist can recognize the character of an animal species or
variety belonging to any region of the globe or any period of time, so also
should an anthropologist if he follows the same method of investigating
the morphological characters of the skull."*

It seems plain that somewhere in the wide range between these two
extremes there is the legitimate place for a rational anthropometry, an
anthropometry that employs mathematical methods in the definite
expression of morphological relationships, and devises various methods of
measurement to bring out differences already perceptible to the eye
of the trained observer. As the most prominent exponent of this form of
the science, whose goal is ever the detailed observation and comparison
of the various representatives of man and man's allies at present and in
the past, and who employs the technique of anthropometry most suc-
cessfully in the pursuit of this goal, we have the great anthropologist of
the University of Strassburg, the late Gustav Schwalbe,and the beginning
anthropometrist can do no better than study any of the classical papers
produced by this man during the last twenty years of his life (1896-1916)
in order to gain a clear idea of the great service of measurements as a
handmaid to morphology. In the field of comparative human evolu-
tion, in the comparison of modern human types with the various pre-
historic forms, he has used the data gained from indices and angles to

* SERGI, G.: The Mediterranean race, Scribner's, 1901, p. 36.

INTRODUCTION 7

the best advantage, and during this investigation, endeavoring con-
stantly to bring out real morphological differences, has established
certain measurements which now rank among the most important and
universally employed of anthropometric data.

Aside from Schwalbe, who was very conservative in his use of measure-
ments, there is a large school of anthropologists of moderate ideas, who
seek to describe the bones of representatives of the various races, and
their bodies as well, by making a reasonable number of measurements,
and at present in the special measurements selected there is in general a
close agreement. Actual conditions may be represented by a comparison
of the work of several of the leading investigators in regard to craniometry,
or the application of measurements to the description of the skull. In
1906 Frederic, an associate of Schwalbe, described certain individual
skulls by the help of 53 separate data, of which 26 are linear measure-
ments; 17, indices; 5, angles; and 3, girths. Adachi, in 1904, in a paper
specially devoted to the examination of the orbital region of Japanese
skulls, employs 56 separate data, of which the greater number refer to
the orbit proper. E. Fischer (University of Freiburg, 1913) presents
in his laboratory outlines, for skull mensuration, which he furnishes to
his students, a list of 77 separate data, 43 of which are linear measure-
ments, 3 are angles, 8 are girths, and 22 are indices; and Schlaginhaufen
(University of Zurich, 1913) uses for the same purpose 82, for the most
part identical with the former. Even v. Torok, with his extreme views
regarding possible craniometrical measures, is yet willing to print a list
of what he calls the "most important" data, which he considers sufficient
for purposes of general description, and which include only 26 linear
measures, 8 indices, 3 girths, and a few other data, 39 in all. Duckworth
(University of Cambridge, England, 1910) employs in a descriptive
paper on Sardinian crania no more than 11 measurements and 5 indices,
although he recommends in practical laboratory work (1904) 15 linear
measurements, 7 indices, 3 angles, and the cranial capacity. Finally
the Prescription of 1906, which obtained the unanimous approval of
the International Anthropological Congress, comprises 38 separate data ;
viz., 32 linear measurements, 3 arcs, 1 angle, and the cranial capacity.

A real danger that besets the anthropometrist along the mathematical
side, and one to which a student may be naturally brought by seeking
to be accurate, is the temptation to treat with too great respect the actual
figures obtained from the individual measurements, to regard the decimal
places as of equal importance in all cases, and to feel that a series of
measurements carried out to the third place, for instance, is much more
accurate and reliable than one carried out only a single place beyond
the point.

As a matter of fact, the accuracy of a result depends essentially upon
the method of making the measurement, and here not only must the
personal equation, as involved in the operator, be taken into considera-
tion, but also the condition of the material measured, for where the

8 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

decimal places used go beyond the error of two consecutive measure-
ments, there is absolutely no value in carrying them out. If, as an
illustration, we find that in a certain skull measurement, the results ob-
tained by different operators, or by the same operator at different times,
do not agree with each other to within 0.5 mm., it is simply time lost to
attempt to carry out the individual measurements beyond one decimal
place. Especially in the case of measurements of the living, where the
operator has to consider, not only his own degree of accuracy, but also
the slight involuntary changes of position of the subject, there are certain
of the longer measurements where one cannot hope to be accurate within
a whole centimeter, and where attention to differences of 2-3 millimeters
would be of no possible avail.

ANTHROPOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS

The instruments employed in anthropometry may be grouped accord-
ing to form and use, as follows :

I. Instruments for measurement
1.. Linear measurement
calipers

craniometer
pelvimeter
slide compass
anthropometer
rod compass
osteometric board

2. Girths and arcs

tape-measures

3. Angles

goniometer (stationary)
goniometer (for attachment)
special types of goniometer

4. Torsion (shaft of long bones)

parallelograph

5. Volumetric instruments

6. Scales for recording weight

II. Instruments for holding and orienting skulls and other bones
simple types of craniophore
cubic craniophore of Martin
osteophores

combined craniophore and osteophore of Wetzel
III. Instruments for drawing and delineating
dioptograph of Lucae
perigraph of Lissauer
diagraph of Martin
stereograph of Broca

I. Instruments for Measurement

The two most convenient types of instrument for measuring linear
distances as defined by two points forming their termini are :

INTRODUCTION 9

1. Calipers (Fr. compas d'epaisseur; Ger. Tasterzirkel)

2. Slide compass (Fr. compas glissiere; Ger. Gleitzirkel)

These two types (Fig. 1) differ most widely in the shape of their legs,
which in the first are long and curved outwards, to admit of passing
around an awkwardly shaped object, and in the second are short and
generally straight. Both consist essentially of a metric scale, to one
end of which one leg is immovably fixed, while the second leg slides
back and forth along the scale, but in the caliper form the legs spread
apart from each other upon a pivot placed at a distance from the scale,
while in the slide compass the two legs are constantly parallel to each
other.

FIG. 1. Two common instruments. (Made by Hermann, Z-drich.)
(The one on the left) Calipers [Fr. compas d'epaisseur; Ger. Tasterzirkel.]
(The one on the right) Slide compass [Fr. compas glissiere; Ger. Gleitzirkel.]

Calipers. There are two forms of calipers with reference to the shape
of the measuring scale; (a) the Bertillon form (Fig. 2), with the scale made
on a curve, and sliding in an immovable slot upon the movable leg, and
(6) the form in which the scale is straight and runs in a separate piece,
attached to the movable leg by a pivot (Fig. 1, left hand). Both types
are furnished with a binding-screw, which, by fastening the movable
leg to the scale may fix a given measurement as long as needed.

It has been found convenient also to make calipers in two sizes,
with varying capacity:

1. A smaller size, designed mainly for the measurement of heads and
skulls, and hence called a Craniometer. Its scale measures 250 mm.

2. A larger size, designed primarily for taking of thoracic and pelvic

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

measurements in the living. It is called a Pelvimeter, and has a scale of
600 mm.

FIG. 2. Bertillon's type of calipers. (After Bertiilon.)

Slide Compass. In the slide compass the scale rod is always straight,
and forms the handle, upon which the movable leg slides, to record its

distance from the fixed leg (Fig. 1,
right hand). In the now more
usual anthropometric form the legs
project to an equal distance upon
each side of the scale and end upon
one side in sharp points, for use in
the measurement of bones, and
upon the other in rounded points,
flattened horizontally, for taking
the measurements of the living.
Bertiilon used two forms, a smaller
and a larger, both differing in cer-
(After tain p O i n ts from the one described
and figured here. The smaller size
possesses flanges along the sides of the legs, and the movable leg is shorter

FIG.

3. Flower's type of calipers.
Duckworth.)

INTRODUCTION 11

than the other; in the larger type the legs project almost wholly upon
one side.

These types, like the Bertillon form of craniometer, were originally
designed to take only certain specific measurements, of use in the identi-
fication of criminals, and are still in general use for this purpose. They
answer fairly well for general anthropometric purposes, but are not fitted
for as general use as the other types. As another special form of slide
compass may be mentioned Flower's craniometer, used by the English
for purposes similar to those for which the smaller calipers are employed;
it has the curved legs of calipers, but in design and plan is a slide com-
pass (Fig. 3).

Anthropometer. The anthropometer (Fig. 4), the most generally
useful of all anthropometric instruments, is especially designed for use

FIG. 4. Anthropometer of Martin, in the folding linen case, ready to be taken into
the field. (Made by Hermann; Zurich.)

in the field, and is thus capable of being readily unshipped and packed
in a small folding canvass case. It consists essentially of a long rod of
rigid steel, made of four separate lengths of 55 cm. each, which, when put
together into one piece, has a length of two meters. Upon one side this
rod is graduated in an ascending scale, from the free end, which is intended
to rest upon the ground, up to the top, to which is attached an immovable
socket (seen upon the top of the rod in Fig. 5). A similar socket, also
intended to bear a cross-rod, slides freely up and down the rod, and regis-
ters the height from the ground of any point upon which the end of the
cross-rod rests (in Fig. 5 the operator is recording the height of the head
of the radius in the standing subject).

Upon the opposite side of the long upright rod, its two upper lengths
bear a graduated ruling in a descending direction, with the zero point at

12 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

the upper, immovable socket. Using these two upper lengths of the
rod by themselves, and reversing the cross-rod in the movable socket, we
have a large slide-compass.

The entire instrument is thus a double one; in one form of adjustment
it is an anthropometer, used for determining the exact height above the
ground of any given point upon a standing or sitting figure (living) , and

FIG. 5. Anthropometer, being used for ascertaining heights from floor.

by means of a few slight changes it becomes converted into a rod-compass,
(Stangenzirkel) or large form of slide compass, with 'the legs composed of
two long rods, which may be adjusted to varying lengths, and used for
nearly all of the purposes for which the more specialized forms of cranio-
meter, pelvimeter, and small slide compass are commonly employed.
Rod Compass. In adjusting the instrument to these two uses there
is necessary a difference in the insertion of the cross rods, as well as in

INTRODUCTION

the scale used and the method of reading their values; and while the
proper methods for each use, with the various compensations to make the
actual distance between the points of the two rods, or the exact height of
the single rod, correspond to that indicated on the scale, a brief review
of the rules to observe may not come amiss.

(a) To set up the instrument as an anthropometer. Use all four lengths,
so adjusted as to make a continuous scale of two full meters, divided into
centimeteis and millimeters. A single cross rod is necessary, and this is
to be put into the movable socket, with the point prolonging the lower
edge of the rod. The proper reading is indicated by a thin edge of metal,
borne near the upper end of the socket on the side of the ascending scale.

(6) To set up the instrument as a rod compass.- Use the two upper
lengths only of the main rod, but employ both cross rods. The upper
one of these latter, borne by the fixed socket, should be placed with its
point prolonging its lower edge; the lower one, borne by the movable
socket, should have the point prolonging its upper edge; that is, the two
cross rods, when placed together, should have the two points in contact.
Thedescending scale should be used, and the reading is indicated by the
flat upper surface of the movable socket. Note that the proper com-
pensations are made at the beginning of the scale, where three millimeters
are taken off.

Osteometric Board. The osteometric board is used in taking the
length of the long bones of the skeleton, and consists of a flat board,

FIG. 6. Osteometric board of Broca.

with an inlaid metric scale, and with a cross piece immovably attached at
one end. A second cross piece, held always parallel to the latter, slides
back and forth along the main board, and the bone to be measured is
shut in between the two. The length is then read off on the scale.

Tape-measure. For all measurements of girth, and also for certain
arcs which present themselves on the surface of the head or skull, the
wellknown tape-measure, graded to millimeters, is universally employed.
The only question in the matter lies between the steel or the cloth form,
and each possesses certain advantages. The steel remains unyielding,
and is as good for use after years of employment as at first, while even
the best weave of cloth stretches, often after a comparatively brief em-

14 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

ployment. On the other hand steel tape is necessarily rigid, and does not
apply itself to a slightly wavy, or otherwise irregular, surface as does the
cloth, and by spanning the hollows may give an incorrect reading, pro-
vided the perimeter of the actual surface is desired. On the whole it is
to be recommended to employ cloth tapes, which are to be frequently
renewed. It is also advisable to test all tapes in use at very frequent
intervals, by applying them to some rigid measure, as the rod of the
anthropometer.

Goniometer. Frequently, when an investigator has found a certain
angle, as shown generally in the skull or other bone, or perhaps in the
living profile, he devises a special instrument (goniometer), designed to

FIG. 7. Attachable goniometer of Mollison. (After Mollison.')

record the measure of this special angle, and this practice has thus re-
sulted in putting before the anthropologist a large number of such special
instruments.

Goniometer of the "Clamp-on Type." A generalized type of gonio-
meter is found in the Ansteckgoniometer, or "Clamp-on Goniometer," of
Mollison. This is made for attachment to other instrume ts and is thus
capable of measuring almost any angle where the part under observation
is immovable, as with a skull in a craniophore, since the instrument
depends upon gravitation. It consists essentially (Fig. 7) of a protractor,
to which is attached a swinging needle, with a heavy base. The frame of
the protractor possesses a slot, controlled by a spring and binding screws,
allowing an easy attachment to any one of several parts of the slide com-
pass, or to other instruments, so that the angle formed by the line joining
the end of the legs of the compass with the perpendicular, as defined by

INTRODUCTION

the swinging needle, which forms a plummet, may be readily ascertained.
Thus, in a skull placed in the Frankfort horizontal the means are here
at hand of determining the angle made by any surface, or by the line
joining any two points, with either this horizontal or with a plane at right
angles io it, such as the median sagittal, or any frontal plane.

The accompanying figures (Figs. 8 and 9) will give suggestions as to
possible uses of this valuable little instrument, and no doubt others may
be devised by the reader. In all cases it will be noted that the angle

FIG. 8. Attachable goniometer of Mollison used with the upper cross arm of the slide

compass. (After Mollison.)

indicated is that formed by the line connecting the two ends of the legs
of the compass with the vertical.

Stationary Goniometer. A rather more special goniometer, especially
designed for getting any of the angles involved in the profile of a skull,
is the stationary goniometer (Fig. 10). This also is intended for use with
a skull placed in the FH,* and must itself be accurately leveled, and used
upon a horizontal table. For this purpose it is provided with leveling
screws and spirit levels in two planes. It is essentially a slide compass,

* Frankfort Horizontal; this customary abbreviation for a constantly recurring
phrase will be employed throughout this book, cf. below, p. 38.

16 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

and is thus provided with two sliding cross rods, graduated in milli-
meters; the upper rod is fixed, the lower movable. As the entire appara-
tus may be raised or lowered in its standard, the fixed upper rod can be
readily placed at the upper limit of the line to be tested, while by moving
the lower one up or down, and by pushing it in or out, its point may be
adjusted to the lower terminus. This line is thus recorded upon the
goniometer by the two points of the cross rods, and may be read off upon
a protractor, by so placing the long needle that its lower thin edge
exactly crosses on the lower rod the degree indicated upon the upper one
by the little mark in the center.

FIQ. 9. Attachable goniometer of Mollison used upon the scale rod. (After Mollison.)

Aside from this the upright standard of the instrument, which may be
raised and lowered in a slot, is also graduated to millimeters and can
thus record differences in level. With the graduating of the cross rods
also, there are numerous other uses to which this instrument may be put
aside from the measurement of profile angles. Yet, these other uses are
generally as well performed, and more conveniently, by such simpler
instruments as the clamp-on form of the goniometer, and thus the
more complicated form is probably destined to be gradually superseded.

Parallelograph. The torsion, or twist, in the shaft of a long bone, as
shown by a superposition of the axes of certain features at its two ends,
is a very special, yet often an extremely important, character. This is

INTRODUCTION

measured by the parallelograph, an instrument designed to record the
projection of any given transverse axes established at the two ends, and
projected upon a plane at right angles with the main axis of the bone
(Fig. 11). If, for example, in the case of the femur, the axis of the head
and neck be indicated by a knitting needle (Ai), fastened to the bone by
wax or plastilina, and if at the other end the axis of the condyles be
similarly shown by a needle placed tangent to the condyles upon their
ventral surfaces (A 2 ), the torsion of this bone would be indicated by the

FIG. 10. Stationary goniometer of Martin. (Manufactured by Hermann; Zurich.)

angle made by these two needles, when the bone is viewed "end on;" in
other words, when these two axes are projected upon a plane perpendicular
to the shaft. (For an illustration of this, cf. Fig. 32).

To actually draw and measure such an angle, a bone is taken, and the
cross axes to be compared are indicated by the needles, after which the
bone is placed in an osteophore, which holds it rigidly in a vertical
position. A retort stand, equipped with a heavy iron clamp, capable of
movement in several directions, serves as the osteophore. This appa-
ratus, including the vertically placed bone with the two needles, is to
be placed upon a large sheet of paper, so fastened as to prevent slipping.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

The parallelograph, the function of which is to accurately delineate
the position of the two needles, projected upon the paper, is essentially
a diagraph, like the one described below, having two arms ending in
points that can be placed, the one exactly above the other, so that,
when the upper one touches a certain point the lower one pricks the
paper exactly beneath it. When, now, two points upon each needle are
thus recorded upon the sheet of paper, the position of each is fixed, and

FIG. 11. Parallelograph of Martin. (Manufactured by Hermann; Zurich.)

their projections are drawn by simply connecting the points of each
line by means of a ruler. The angle is then measured by a protractor.

The parallelograph consists essentially of a vertical rod, rising from
the center of an iron tripod, paralleled by a rod of smaller caliber, arising
from one leg of the tripod base, and fixed immovably to the first at about
3 cm. distant. The larger rod bears two freely movable sockets, con-
trolled by binding screws each bearing a horizontal steel needle, each
of which may be pushed back and forth through its socket, also controlled
by screws. As the needles are graduated the two can be pushed out to

INTRODUCTION 19

exactly the same length. When this is done the two are brought per-
fectly parallel by swinging them against the smaller of the two parallel
uprights. The points of the two needles are now in the proper position
the one exactly above the other, but are directed differently, for while
the point of the upper needle is directed outwards, as the prolongation
of the needle itself, that of the lower is carried upon a secondary piece at
right angles to the main needle, and is thus directed downwards, so that
it may prick the paper placed beneath the apparatus.

To project a given line (here a knitting needle fastened to the bone
to be measured with respect to torsion) the point of the upper needle is
placed in contact successively with two points on the needle defining the
axis to be projected, while the lower needle records the points by making
slight punctures in the paper beneath. If any two approximately
transverse axes are both projected so that they cross, an angle is formed
that can be easily read.

In using the parallelograph care must be taken that both transverse
needles of the instrument are in contact with the smaller upright, and
that they are pushed out equally; as otherwise the points would not lie
in the same line vertically. This may be made certain by bringing the
upper arm so far down towards the other, that the point of its needle
coincides with the median axis of the vertical part of the lower needle.
The shape of the upper end of this facilitates this comparison.

Volumes. The principal volumes used by the anthropometrist are
those of the cranial cavity and the orbit of the eye, the first one of the very
earliest, the other one of the latest of anthropometric data to be developed.
For the first, the technique for which is to be found elsewhere, the essential
apparatus consists of some medium with which to fill the cavity, such as
shot, sand, mustard seed, etc., a graduated cylinder in which to measure
the medium, and usually some simple mechanical means to insure a
uniformity in pressure during the filling and emptying.

A control skull, either an actual skull, or a receptacle of similar shape,
of known capacity, is frequently used at short intervals during the
work, to see that the measurements are made with a fair amount of
uniformity.

Weight. The weight of an object is seldom used in anthropometry
except in the case of the entire body. The weight of certain organs in a
perfectly fresh condition, as provided during an autopsy, has also been
found of some value, especially in the case of the brain; but the weight
of bones depends so much upon their condition, especially with regard to
water content, that, except where the condition is absolutely the same, as
in comparisons of the weight of the different bones of the same skeleton,
such are of no especial value. For all such work any form of reliable
scales provided with the metric weights is satisfactory, for accurate bodily
weight special forms of scales are obtainable, as are used in gymnasiums,
hospitals and clinics. To have any anthropometric value the weight of

20 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

the unclothed body should be taken. (See below, p. 162.) The weight
of a detached part of a living body, like a leg or a hand, may be deter-
mined with considerable accuracy by displacement. A vessel is prepaied,
suitable in size and shape for the reception of the part to be weighed; it
is filled with water, and the part in question thrust in. The volume of
the water displaced, expressed in cubic centimeters, is multiplied by the
average specific gravity of the part to be weighed, as learned from
cadavers. The result is give in grams.

II. Instruments for Holding and Orienting
Skulls and other Bones

A simple and perfectly satisfactory type of osteophore, especially
suited to the long bones, has been already described in connection with
the parallelograph above; namely, a retort stand, with an iron clamp.
This would hardly be satisfactory for skulls, and here, owing in part to
their peculiar shape, and more because of the need for an exact orienta-
tion, some special type is necessary for most purposes.

Craniophores. Such a craniophore should have a pair of jaws,
designed to be attached at the occipital foramen, the one outside and
the other within; also a set of joints to allow the jaws, bearing the
skull, to be moved in two directions at right angles with each
other, for purposes of orientation. It is also convenient to be able
to raise and lower the entire craniophore, or that part of it bearing
the skull.

A simple form is shown in Fig. 10, in connection with the goniometer
where the jaws are borne at the top of an upright piece, set into a heavy
iron tripod, furnished with leveling screws. The jaws are provided with
two joints, not well shown in the picture, which allow motion of the skull
either forward and back or from side to side, and are borne, not upon the
main upright, but upon an inner metallic tube, which slides in and out of
the other, and allows the skull to be raised and lowered without altering
its orientation.

Cubic Craniophore. For certain work, especially for drawing with
the diagraph, as described below, a great advantage comes from shut-
ting the skull, properly orientated, and held in the jaws, within a skeleton
cube, so that it presents the six normae and thus may be drawn or
photographed in any of them .

For this purpose the cubic craniophore has been devised (Fig. 12).
It has been variously improved and varied for remedying certain defects,
but in its main forms it appears as at A, where the jaws, with their
orienting joints, have been taken bodily from the vertical form just
described, and set into a socket in the middle of the floor (in the figure
the entire apparatus has been reversed for use with the diagraph, which
is also shown) ; or as at B, where the jaws and joints are held by a rigid

INTRODUCTION

arm, that comes out from one edge, and thus gets rid of the substruc-
ture which in the other form bears the socket.*

FIG. 12. Cubic craniophore of Martin, used with his diagraph. The upper figure
gives Martin's original model, in which to insure sufficient rigidity to the whole it is neces-
sary to supply the bottom square (here the top) with a set of cross diagonals. In order
to free the entire surface of drawing paper on which the craniophore stands, the whole
apparatus is inverted, and the skull hangs from the middle of the upper plane. In the
lower figure, equipped with the improvement of Scnlaginhaufen, this inversion is not neces-
sary, as the skull is borne upon a rigid steel arm which projects from one edge like an
immovable bracket lamp, and quite frees the craniophore from all incumbrances like
diagonals. The leveling platform used in connection with both craniophore and diagraph
is a great convenience wherever a permanently level table top is not available. (After
Schlaginhqufen.)

Horizontal Needle. A convenient accessory instrument, the hori-
zontal needle, consists of a small steel upright on a tripod, which bears, in a
socket which may be raised and lowered, a cross needle which may be
pushed in and out, precisely like the upper one of the two arms of the

* For the " Kubuskraniophor " here figured and described, cf. MARTIN, R. :
Ueber einige neuere Instrumente und Hilfsmittel fur den anthropologischen Unter-
richt, Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Gesellsch. fiir Anthropol. No. 11, 1903.
(Versammlung in Worms.) SCHLAGINHAUFEN, O.: Beschreibung und Handhabung
von Rudolf Martin's diagraphen-technischen Apparaten, ibid., No. 15, 1907.

22 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

parallelograph. When a skull is clamped into a craniophore, particularly
one like that first described, and figured in Fig. 12, this needle may be
used in placing the skull at the FH, the adjusting being continued until
the needle, at a given level, by being pushed about the table on different
sides, will successively point to the four essential points involved in this
horizontal, the lowest point in the rim of each orbit, and the highest point
in the rim of each auditory meatus. When a satisfactory orientation has
been made in such a craniophore, the essential part, together with the
skull, may be easily transferred to the cubic frame, without further adjust-
ment. Except, however, for the upright parts of the cubic frame, the
first orientation may be done just as well within the cubic craniophore, by
the help of the horizontal needle.

Table. It will be seen from this procedure, and still more from the
description of the diagraph, to follow, that the table, although hardly an
anthropometric instrument in itself, must be suited to the work. For
these and other proceedings its top should be level and very smooth, and
it would be as well to have it accurately leveled for such instruments as
the stationary goniometer. Polished slate or plate glass is recommended
for the surface, to which paper may be temporarily attached by means
of wax or plastilina. For purposes where an instrument is required
to be held stationary, as in the case of the cubic craniophore, during
the drawing of diagraph curves, the same material may serve, placed
along the base.

For purposes where a skull is simply to be held without orientation
some very simple device is sufficient. For exhibition in a museum
a standard with an upright bearing a spring or some arrangement of
twisted wire is sufficient, and for many anthropometric purposes, such
as drawing or photographing, a similar device is often satisfactory. A
thin cloth cushion, nine inches square, partially filled with bran, serves
a most useful purpose in all ordinary examinations of a skull, and in
the measurements of arcs and linear distances. Upon such a cushion,
if not very well filled, a skull may be placed in practically any desired
position, leaving the two hands free for drawing; the cushion saves also
the wear and tear to which a skull is subject, rolled about upon a table.

Universal Holder of Wetzel. A device in which any sort of bone, in
almost any degree of fragmentation, may be held with well-nigh mathe-
matical exactness, convenient for the application of any form of drawing
apparatus, is the Universal holder of Wetzel, Fig. 13. This apparatus,
described in detail in Zeitschr. Morphol. und Anthropol., 1910-11, pp.
541-598, consists of a round stone table, upon which may be erected
either one or two massive steel stands, which clamp firmly to the table
edge. Various forms of clutch, fitted to various cases, are borne by the
stand or stands, the firmest and best arrangement being one in which two
stands are used, clamped at opposite sides of the table, and bear between
them a horizontal steel bar. Whether supported by one or two stands

INTRODUCTION

this horizontal bar, suspended above the table, furnishes the attach-
ment for the various clutch devices, which thus hold skull, skull-frag-
ment or long bone, whatever its shape or size, directly above the table.
In Fig. 13 the single stand is used, and the very irregular piece is held in
the position desired.

FIG. 13. The osteophore of Wetzel. This is essentially a horizontal rod of heavy steel,
upon which a variety of appliances may be attached to hold bones. This rod may be at-
tached upon one side only, as in the figure, or upon both sides, as desired, or in accordance
with the problem in hand. (After Wetzel.)

III. Instruments for Drawing and Delineating

Aside from the universally used photograph there are several forms
of drawing instruments in common use for reproducting accurate lines
of skulls and other bones.

Dioptograph of Lucae. The diaptograph is essentially a panto-
graph, augmented by a telescope with a field crossed by spider lines
which has for its purpose the selection of the exact lines to be drawn.
The observer stands over the tube, and places the point of crossing of the
lines in the tube over the lines he wishes to draw, sliding the tube gently
with its felt-covered foot over a glass surface. Whatever lines are thus
traced by the tube are reproduced by the pantograph at a distance, and
by making use of the pantograph principle, and adjusting the frame, the
reproduction may be made either larger, smaller, or of the same size as
the object itself.

Perigraph of Lissauer. In the Lissauer model, called by its deviser
a perigraph, the stand consists of an upright upon a flat horizontal base,

24 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

to which it is attached exactly at right angles (Fig. 15). The upright
bears a long, curved needle, which can be raised and lowered, and which
is sufficiently curved to be out of the way of any projecting portion of
the skull or bone which is being traced. The point of this needle (d),
placed upon the desired level of a skull firmly held in a craniometer,
traces around the perimeter, while a pencil (g~) traces exactly the same

FIG. 14. The dioptograph of Lucae in use. The operator is here following the contour
lines of a skull as seen from the norma verticalis by means of the small telescope, and at the
same time, by means of the attached pantograph, is sketching the same upon the sheet
of drawing paper upon her left, mounted upon the drawing-board. As with other panto-
graphs a skull may be thus drawn at a reduction or an enlargement, or can be drawn at
exactly the natural size, as here.

curve upon a sheet of paper placed upon the table. In the figure, which
is a little blind, the curved line proceeding from the pencil point is simply
the curve which is being drawn, and not a second needle, as it seems.

Diagraph cf Martin. The form employed by Martin, called a dia-
graph, is figured in connection with his cubic craniophore in Fig. 12. The
curved needle is similar to the one used in the previous instrument, but

INTRODUCTION

the frame is simpler, and consists of a felt-covered metallic foot, of oval
form, which bears as the upright, a graduated steel rod. The curved

FIG. 15. The perigraph of Lissauer, really a diagraph, differing but a little from that of

Martin. (After Wetzel.)

needle may be rotated so that the curve lies at any plane without chang-
ing the exact position of the needle point above the pencil.

FIG. 16. Broca's stereograph. (After Topinard.)

Stereograph of Broca. In the stereograph of Broca (Fig. 16) , we meet
with another principle, that of a swinging stand that carries the needle

26 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

and pencil as well, while the paper is held vertically, like an artist's
canvas.

SIMPLE BIOMETRIC METHODS

I. Indices

The Index of a given measurement is its percentage when compared
with some other measurement taken as a standard, or the equivalent of
100. It is thus a relative, and not an absolute, term, and may be com-
pared directly with the corresponding index in another individual of
different size.

For example, imagine three heads as seen from directly above; in
one, which is long and narrow, the breadth is exactly one-half the length;
in another the breadth is three-fourths the length; and in the third, which
is absolutely circular in this outline the breadth and the length are equal.
Now, if the total length were exactly the same in all, for instance, 160 mm.,
the three breadths would be respectively 80, 120, and 160, and they
could be directly compared; if, however, they were not alike, we could
say that in the first the breadth was 50% of the length; the second, 75%,
and the third 100%, and these proportions could be compared directly,
although the actual measurements in millimeters could not.

These are the indices, i.e., the proportions of the breadths to the
lengths. Whatever the actual lengths, they are considered to equal 100
in all cases, and the breadths are expressed as so many parts of that 100.
The question is, if the length equals 100, what does the breadth equal?;
or length : breadth :: 100 : x. This is solved by converting this expres-
sion into the following:

breadth X 100

length

which will give the value of the breadth, in terms of the length, or, in
other words, the index.

Illustration. The total length of a given skull is 190 mm., and its
breadth is 141 mm. We now divide the number, the percentage of
which is to be found by the one which is to stand for 100, first adding
two ciphers to the dividend, thus:

190)14100(74.21 index
1330
800
760

400
380

200

190

The breadth, 141, is thus about 74% of the length, and this index is to
be compared directly with the like index of any other skull, whatever its
size.

Skulls of as large an index as 100 or as small a one as 50, mentioned in

INTRODUCTION 27

the explanation, do not exist normally, an index of 65 or one of 96 being
extreme. Some 50% of all skulls have indices that fall between 75 and
80, and consequently these are called mesocranial ("mesocephalic").
Skulls below 75 are dolichocranial, and those above 80 are brachycranial.
The one of this illustration is dolichocranial.

While it is usually more convenient, in using an index, to have the two
distances taken at right angles to each other as here, it is by no means
necessary, and an index may as well be used which takes two distances

parallel to each other (as two across the face, - No. 18

zy - zy

under Skull, below) ; or even one that uses the whole and a part of the

length of humerus X 100

same line: Ex. - ^n re e Although the distance to be

total length of arm

reduced to a percentage is generally smaller than the one which represents
the 100, this also is not necessary, and there are indices where the reverse
is true, and where the value of the index is consequently more than
100.

II. Frequency Curves

When, after taking a large series of the same measurement in many
individuals, we wish to compare its distribution, that is, the frequency of
occurrence of each measurement, it is usual to construct a frequency
curve, which will show the whole result at one stroke. This is done by
the employment of paper with two sets of parallel rulings, at right angles
to each other, the so-called "cross- section paper." Spaced horizontally
from left to right along the bottom (or top) are placed the successive
measurements, while along an upright on the left is placed a series of
numbers, usually from 1 on, to indicate the number of individuals which
are included under each measurement. The result of plotting the entire
record out is a series of vertical columns of varying height, and the fre
quency curve is formed by connecting the tops of the columns.

Example: Suppose that, as the result of measuring 36 different
objects, we find the result, giving each in millimeters, to be,
3, 5, 5, 5, 6, 4, 8, 4, 4, 6, 4, 6, 7, 3, 7, 6, 8, 10,
3, 4, 3, 5, 6, 5, 4, 4, 9, 5, 7, 9, 1, 6, 2, 5, 2, 5,

As they are found to vary from 1 to 10, we may then erect as many verti-
cal columns, each of as many squares as there are instances of that par-
ticular figure, as follows :

2
2

3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

6
6
6
6
6
6

7
7 8
7 8

9
9

28 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

The top ends of the columns mark the position of the Frequency
Curve which may be easily drawn.

As used in anthropometry frequency curves are most usually drawn
upon a basis of groups of numbers, instead of using each consecutive
one, 10 or 5 being convenient numbers to use in grouping. Thus the
results of the measurement of the length of the radius in 100 students
(females) were the following, grouped into groups each of five milli-
meters extent:

Extent in millimeters of each group Frequency; i.e., number of individuals within each

group

210-215 1

215-220 1

220-225 5
225-230 . . 11

230-235 12

235-240 12

240-245 16

245-250 8

250-255 9

255-260 7

260-265 5

265-270 4

270-275 1

275-280 2

280-285 4

285-290 2

100

A frequency curve may be easily made from the above by erecting 16
columns, of which the first and second have a height of 1, the third one
of 5, the fourth one of 11, and so on, the crest, which indicates in a general
way the average of all, falling at the top of the seventh column, which is
16 units high. Where, as in this case, a short column intervenes between
two taller ones, as at the thirteenth column, which is 1, followed by
higher ones, it is an indication that the groups of units are too small,
and tend to make a jagged frequency curve. In such a case the curve
may be smoothed out by combining the groups into larger ones. If, for
example, we combined these groups in pairs and had an interval of ten,
instead of five, for each, we would avoid any such intermediate short
columns, thus:

Groups, with 10-millimeter intervals Frequency (individuals in each group)

210-220 2

220-230 16

230-240 24

240-250 24

250-260 16

260-270 9

270-280 3

280-290 6

INTRODUCTION 29

In this particular case the doubling of the intervals for the groups
does not smooth out the drop near the right-hand end of the curve, but
the entire curve becomes otherwise more symmetiical. The other way to
smooth out an irregular curve is to increase the number of instances,
measure another hundred, for instance, which would tend, by the doctrine
of chances, to fill out the short columns.

One of the main uses of frequency curves is to show the general
distribution of a certain set of measures or other statistics. The highest
point in the curve marks the point of greatest frequency, the one that
has the most votes, so to speak, and is called the mode. In the measure-
ment of the same parts in two distinct human races, it may often happen
that the modes of the two races differ from each other, which would be
well brought out by superposing one curve upon the other. A bi-modal
curve, or one with two crests, is sometimes found to be the result of the
use of mixed material, that is, in anthropology, from the mixture of two
differently proportioned races; and while this does not always prove to
be the cause, such a curve always leads the anthropologist to suspect
that such may be the case.

III. The Arithmetical Mean

This is what is usually referred to as the average, and is one of the
first things to be ascertained from the usual results of the measurement
of a certain length in a number of individuals. The most simple method
of obtaining it is by actual summation, i.e., adding the several results
together, and dividing by the number of instances (individuals). Thus,
in the following measurements of the cristal breadth (between the hips)
of the same 100 students that furnished the radius length measurements,
the arithmetical mean is calculated by actual summation :

Total value

205

215

225

235

1,960

3,825

5,300

4,950

4,845

4,130

915

315

ARITHMETIC MEAN OF THE

CRISTAL BREADTH

Items in groups
200-210

(100 female students)

Frequency Value of each

1 X 205

210-220

215

220-230

225

230-240

235

240-250

245

250-260

255

260-270

265

270-280

275

280-290

285

290-300

295

300-310

305

310-320

315

100 27,120

27,120 -r- 100 = 271.2, the arithmetic mean.

In this case it will be noticed that the value taken for each group is
the mid-value between the two extremes of the group. There is still

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

some little chance of error, since the separate individual measures may be
anywhere between the limits of each group, yet the error is inconsiderable.
A second method of obtaining the arithmetic mean is by assuming a
mean, which may be any mid-value in the list, and calculating the correc-
tions. It is as follows :

Items in groups !

Frequency

d
Deviation of
the class

f-d
Product

2
Summation

200-210

- 5 5

210-220

- 4 4

- 22

220-230

*~~ O

- 3

230-240

- 2

240-250

- 1

- 8

250-260

15 (assumed ave.)

' 260-270

+ 1

+ 20

270-280

+ 2

+ 36

280-290

+ 3 +51

290-300

+ 4 +56

+ 184

300-310

+ 5 +15

310-320

+ 6 +6

The first two columns are as before. An average is assumed, in this
case we take the group with 15 instances, with the value of 255, the
mid-value between 250 and 260, the two extremes of the group taken.
We then prepare the third column, by marking the group taken as 0, and
successively designating those that are lower as 1, 2, 3, and so on;
while the larger groups are also successively, counting from the 0, +1,
+2, +3, and so on. The fourth column is made up of the product of the
items of the third and the second, the product of the number of instances
into the class value of each group. These are summed up in two sums,
the + and the , the algebraic sum of the two is obtained, and alge-
braically added to the assumed average. This gives the actual average.

Here, assuming the average to fall at 255, we get, by multiplying
column four by column three, the sum of 22 and the sum of +184.
The algebraic sum of the two is +162, which should be multiplied by 10,
the class interval, and then divided by 100, the total number of indi-
viduals used. This gives us, first, 1620, and then 16.20, which, having
a + sign, must be added to the assumed average, 255, to get the true
average, 271.2, the same as by the other method. If the reader should
start with the same two first columns, and assume any other average, as,
for example, 275 or 285, the final result would be the same.

This method is not any simpler to understand than the other, but has
the distinct advantage of using lower numbers.

IV. Deviation

The arithmetical mean, or average, represents the value of each of the
separate items if they were all evened up, with those which were more

INTRODUCTION

than the mean balanced up with those that were less to the same amount,
yet it is probable that no single item of the entire list is the exact equiva-
lent of the mean itself, but that each one deviates from this ideal, by so
much more or by so much less. Now, it is important to know, in a given
list, how much the items vary from the mean, in order to compare lists of
different measurements, for the purpose of seeing how great the variation.

Now, the amount of variation, that is, whether all the items of a given
list keep rather near the mean, or whether they swing away from it
considerably, and thus show a large range of variation, is important to
know. This cannot be done by selecting from the list the two extremes
and comparing these, for this gives simply the range of variation, in which
both extremes may be unusual while the rest vary but little from the mean.
One must instead find the exact amount of deviation from the mean shown
by each item on the list, add them all together, and divide by. the number
of items, which gives us an average or mean of the deviations, the Aver-
age Deviation, which takes into consideration, not simply two items but
all of them.

This may , of course, be done by comparing each individual item with
the mean, adding all together algebraically, and dividing this sum by the o ' '
number of items, but, in a long series of items, such a method would be
too laborious. This work may be materially shortened by using a method
similar to that employed for getting the mean. As an illustration the
average deviation of the preceding table of cristal breadths may be
calculated as follows :

Items in groups

Frequency

Deviation from the
mean

Summation

210-215

215-220

220-225

225-230 1

230-235 8

235-240 1 7

240-245 2 6

245-250 3

250-255 5

255-260

260-265

265-270

270-275

271.20 mean

275-280

280-285

285-290

290-295

295-300

300-305

305-310

310-315

32 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

In the above list, which is grouped in fives instead of in tens, as in the
table above, the group 270-275 is excepted, as containing the mean.
The frequency is indicated in the next column, and in the next is indi-
cated the rank of each group, above and below that containing the mean.
In the fourth is placed the product of rank of each group with the fre-
quency of each, and all, both plus and minus, are added together arith-
metically, since the ainount of the deviation, and not its direction, is
sought in each case. This amount is found to be 126 minus, and 134 plus,
or 260 in all. But as we have been considering groups of five units, the
actual value of these deviations must be multiplied by 5, or 260 X 5 =
1300, and as the items included within the group which contains the
mean do not count as deviating, this sum is divided by the total num-
ber of items, in this case 100, which gives the Average Deviation, if equally
distributed to each item, as 13.00.

There are, however, several small errors not noted in the above, which
may now be removed by a little calculation. If the mean were at exactly
the mid-point of the group in which it lies, i.e., 272.50, the calculation
would be correct as it stands, but in this case it is a very little less than
this, or 271.20,a discrepancy of 1.30, which should be subtracted from each
item on the minus side of the line, and added to each on the plus side. The
items represented on the two sides naturally balance in part, as may be
found by subtracting the one group from the other, in this case 126
from 134, leaving 8 to account for; the sum of the deviation of these 8
items, each of which differs from the figure used by 1.30 ,or in all 10.40,
must be added to the sum obtained before division; that is, 1300 + 10.40
= 1310.40. This corrects the items except those within the group 270 -
275, which may be supposed to differ from the mean by the same amount,
1.30. Hence the sum 1.30 X 12 (the number of items involved) or 15.60
must be also added, which will increase the total figure to 1326.00. When
this amended sum is divided by the total number of items the corrected
figure is 13.26, the correct Average Deviation.

For calculating the deviation of a series of numbers from a mean most
statisticians recommend, instead of the above, the Standard Deviation,
in which the calculations are based upon the squares of the successive
deviations, rather than the simple numbers, and the final result is ob-
tained by extracting the square root of the results thus obtained. This
method yields more satisfactory results, but involves more that is purely
mathematical.

IV Coefficient of Variation

The calculation of deviation shows the actual amount by which the
single item?, on the aveiage, deviate from the mean; in such studies as
are discussed here, the actual number of millimeters. It is plain, however,
that in a table which treats of short measures, involving, perhaps, 100
to 150 mm., an average deviation of 10 mm. shows a larger relative devia-

INTRODUCTION 33

tion than twice this amount would in a table such as the femur length,
where the lengths involved run between four and five hundred millimeters.
In order, then, to directly compare deviations from different tables, we
need some sort of index which expresses the relation of the actual devia-
tion to the actual mean. Such an index is the Coefficient of Variation, or
"Coefficient of Dispersion, " as it is also called, which uses the mean as
the standard ( = 100), and compares with it the deviation, as follows:

Deviation X 100

Coefficient of Variation = : ^ .

Mean

In the example used here, where the average or Mean of the Cristal
Breadths of 100 students is 271.20 mm., and the average deviation of the

13 26
items is 13.26, the Coefficient of Variation is ? - ' ~~ or 4.9 % of the mean.

This figure gives thus the proportionate amount of variation exhibited
by a certain measurement, as taken in a number of individuals, and may
be compared directly with a similar figure taken from a different list,
involving a totally different measurement. By such methods the amount
of variation (proportionately) in the radius length could be compared
with the amount of variation in the femur length, and the conclusion
definitely taken as to which is relatively the more variable, in spite of
he actual differences in the lengths of the two bones.

PART I
Osteometry; the Measurement of the Bones, Including the Skull*

I. THE SKULL

Orientation

Orientation of the Skull; Horizontals; Norms. When a student
takes a human skull into his hands in order to study, not its bones and
other anatomical features, but its contours and proportions, and seeks
to compare it in these particulars with a series of other skulls, he finds
that the slightest change of position profoundly alters the contours to
be examined and compared, and that it is consequently necessary to
establish a fixed position for all, so that they may be properly compared.
Furthermore, this fixed position must be universally used, as otherwise
comparisons of the work of several investigators, especially in the use
of photographs and contour curves, could not be made.

There is thus presented at the outset the question of an exact, uniform
position, in which all skulls may be readily placed, and capable of applica-
tion by all anthropologists everywhere.

Assuming, as we may, that skulls should be placed upright, with
the median sagittal plane in a vertical position, the question resolves
itself into determining the exact point at which the skull should be ar-
rested in a rotation about a transverse axis, at right angles to this upright
median plane; whether for example, it should be set as it naturally rests
upon a level table, with the face canted back, or whether it should be
raised to a position more in accord with that in which the head is habit
ually held in life. The first position suggested is certainly not advisable

* The author here and throughout this work use the term Osteometry in the
larger sense of the measurement of the skeleton and its parts in distinction from that
of the entire body when still clothed in flesh, or Somatometry. Historically the skeletal
part first measured was the skull, to the study of which the term Craniometry was
naturally applied, after which the word Osteometry was used for the remaining bones.
Aside from the skull, in which a series of bones is immovably welded together to
make a firm complex, thus forming a single subject for treatment, we have the pelvic
bones, which have but little meaning when separated. For the measurement of
this complex as a whole there has developed, as in the skull, a distinct term, the word
Pelvimetry, and for other more or less closely associated series we may need eventually
to coin such words as Cheirometry, Podometry, etc. There is no question, however,
but that a word is necessary to signify the measurements of all the skeletal parts,
and that that word is, Osteometry.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

since a skull with the mandible attached rests at a very different angle
from one without this part, and in the latter case it is impossible to make
the proper substitution, or to know the height and other proportions
of the missing part. Again, granting that a skull with mandible could
be thus treated, the angular slant of the facial profile and of the forehead,
characters essential to comparisons, would depend largely upon such
points as the length of the chin, and the length or condition of the teeth,
points which are of little anthropological importance^ and have no
reference to the more essential measurements of the skull.

The need was early felt, then, of the establishment of a standard plane
defined in terms of topographical landmarks existing on the skull deprived
of mandible, upon which a skull could always be placed preparatory to

FIG. 17. Skull placed on the horizontal used by Petrus Camper (1786).

examination, photography, tracing of contours, or any similar procedure,
involving comparison. The early Dutch anthropologist, Petrus Camper,
in his classical investigation of the facial angle, published posthumously
in 1786, employed as the base a line drawn through the nasal spine and
the center of the auditory meatus, and compared with this a line roughly
tangent to the profile. The angle included between these two was the
facial angle, while the lower line, which could be converted into a plane
by including both meatuses, formed a horizontal plane upon which
different skulls could be placed for comparison (Fig. 17). This plane, or
"horizontal" was modified a few years later by Geoffrey de St. Hilaire
(1795), who retained the auditory opening for the more posterior point,
but changed the anterior one from the nasal spine to the free margin of
the incisor teeth (Fig. 18). This was in two particulars a change for the
worse, as it tilted the skull much too far back to be natural, and employed

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

a point which necessitated the presence of teeth. Seeking to remedy
these defects, Jules Cloquet (1821) proposed for the anterior point, not

FIG. 18. Skull placed on the horizontal used by Geoffrey de St. Hillaire (1795).

the free margin of the teeth, but that of the alveoli, while he still retained
the center of the meatus posteriorly (Fig. 19) .

FIG. 19. Skull placed upon the horizontal used by Jules Cloquet (1821).

Much later (1862) Broca established the famous alveolo-condylar
plane, which, from its general use by French anthropologists, is often

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

called the "French horizontal" (Fig. 20). This takes as the three points
for the establishment of the plane the alveolar point of Cloquet, and,
instead of the meatuses, the lower point of the occipital condyles,
that is, the point upon which these parts would naturally rest. This
is not far from the natural position of a skull deprived of mandible, when
laid on the table, and is approximately parallel to the plane of the optical
axes of the two eyes when looking straight forward.

Quite within the present generation another, and, we hope, final
horizontal has been established, which has come into almost universal
use, although there is still among the French a liking for the alveolo-

FIG. 20. Skull placed upon the alveo-condylar plane of Broca (1862).

condylar plane of Broca. This is the plane established by the Interna-
tional Anthropological Association at a meeting at Frankfort-on-Main,
and hence known as the " Frankfort Horizontal " (Fig. 21). * This, unlike
the preceding, rests upon four points: the highest point in the margins
of the two meatuses, and the lowest points in the margins of the two
orbits. This has the one disadvantage of resting upon four points
instead of three, so that, unless a skull is perfectly symmetrical, and few
are, the plane has to be a sort of concession or approximation, but has

* The Frankfort Horizontal was first proposed at the meeting of the Craniometric
Congress held at Munich in 1877; it was later ratified at the International Congress of
Anthropologists at their meeting at Frankfort a/M, in 1884, hence the name.

Cf. ECKER u. His: Ueber die Horizontalebene des menschlichen Schadels.
Archiv. f. Anthropol., Bd. 9. 1877, pp. 271 +.

GOLDSTEIN: Le plan horizontal du crane. Rev. anthropol., 1884. Series 2. T. 7.
pp. 680 +.

GARSON, J. G.: The Frankfort Craniometric Agreement, with critical remarks
thereon. Journ. Anthropol. Inst., London. Vol. 14, pp. 64+.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

the more than compensatory advantage of being almost equally deter-
minable on the living; that is, the head of a living subject may be set up
on the Frankfort horizontal as readily as a skull, and thus the two may
be directly compared. It is also the claim of the originators, that this
horizontal places a skull more nearly in the usual position during life than
do any of the others.

In order to set a given skull upon one of these horizontals it is first
put into a standard known as a craniophore, which consists essentially
of two metal jaws controlled by a screw, the whole capable of turning
in the three planes. The skull is clamped into this by using either
the anterior or the posterior lip of the occipital foramen, and the skull

FIG. 21. Skull placed upon the Frankfort horizontal (1884).

turned in the two vertical planes until the points in question are on the
same horizontal plane, i.e., at the same distance above the plane of the
table upon which the craniophore rests. To determine this a vertical
rod is used, set on a standard, and carrying an adjustible pointer. It
is placed on the table with the craniophore, and placed in any position
desired, while the skull is adjusted until the pointer, at the same level,
points directly to each of the points used in determining the horizontal.
A skull, thus placed upon a horizontal, may be considered a cube
with its six faces, although with irregular surfaces. The upper and lower
faces are parallel to the given horizontal, or to the plane of the table,
the two lateral faces are parallel to" the median vertical plane, and the
anterior and posterior faces are perpendicular to the four others. These
four aspects, which are the ones used for comparison, and in the photo-
graphy of skulls, are known as normce, and are as follows:

40 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

norma frontalis full front view.

norma occipitalis back view, parallel to the foregoing.

norma verticalis top view, from directly above.

norma basilaris view of the base, parallel with the foregoing, but viewed

from the opposite direction.

normce laterales There are naturally two of these, right and left. These

(deztra et sinistra) are views taken directly from the side, and give their

features in the reverse order. The full profile should
be the same when traced from either side, but that seen
from the right faces the right, and vice versa.

The Cubic Craniophore, described above (p. 20) is especially designed
to define these six normse by placing a skull in a cubic frame. When
oriented according to the FH* the six faces of the craniophore coincide
exactly to the normse. The skull is thus exactly placed. For use with
the diagraph, or for photography, and may be properly placed by resting
the craniophore on the table upon any face, as desired.

Naturally a skull needs to be held in a craniophore and thus accurately
oriented for certain purposes only, mainly for drawing, photographing,
and tracing contours. For obtaining the ordinary measurements, and
for examining the morphological peculiarities it is best placed on a table
before the observer, and for the measurement of circumferences by means
of the tape, it is most conveniently held in the lap. A simple and con-
venient device for much of the work consists of a cloth cushion, nine inches
square and partly filled with bran. This is placed upon the table in
front of the observer, and the skull put upon it. This not only saves
much wear and tear of the skulls, which are likely to suffer from direct
contact with the hard table top, but it will be found that the skull may
be held by the bag in any position desired, thus releasing both hands
for other work. Not only may many morphological features be thus
conveniently drawn, as they do not depend upon orientation, but the
majority of the measurements may be more easily made upon a skull
thus firmly placed.

Landmarks

Landmarks Established on the Skull for Use in Craniometry.

For use in the new science of craniometry Broca, an early French anthro-
pologist, established a number of definite points on the skull surface,
which were mostly without special anatomical significance and which
were consequently without special anatomical names, but which became
of importance to him as the termini of essential linear measurements.
To many of these he gave distinctive names, such as glabella, inion,
bregma, and so on, thus avoiding the inconvenience of using a long phrase

* The Frankfort Horizontal is commonly designated by its two initials, given in
capitals, and will be so used throughout this book.

RY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

interns

hv..etrical relatioi
ore variable in position,
than a point.

er investigators have added to
a hundred in general use, the
the skull surface, external

.ion, arc located
. aphv, and arc ihcrc-
a region, rather

fmt

Fro. 22. Anatomical landmarks on the skull, norma frontalis. For the meaning of the
abbreviations, see the list on pp. 42-48..

The following list of such anthropological landmarks includes those in
common use, with their customary abbreviations.* The arrangement
is alphabetical. Points situated laterally, and therefore paired, are
marked with a f; those not so marked are median.

* The abbreviations given here are those already in more or less general use, and
should not be varied. When thoroughly learned they will be found convenient to
use in notes and manuscript in place of the full names, and may serve as a convenient
sort of shorthand which will save much time.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

acanthion (acan)

alveolon (alv)

The Rpint
of tin-
much

wntere a line drawn
"the alveolar ridges crosses
r line. In practice this point is readily^
id by placing a fine knitting needle across,',-;'-
late, just back of the posterior ends of the W
blar ridge, and marking the point where this ?
rosses the median suture of the palate bones.

FIG. 23. Anatomical landmarks on the skull; norma lateralis.

abbreviations, see pp. 4248.

For the meaning of the

asterion (ast) f

auricular e (au) f

A point behind the base of the mastoid process,
where the lambdoidal, parieto-squamous, and oc-
cipito-squamous sutures come together, defining
the boundaries of parietal, occipital, and temporal
bones.

A point vertically above the center of the auditory
meatus, and crossing the root or base of the zygoma.
This point is but a few millimeters above the porion.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

basion (ba)

condylion laterale (cdl) f
condylion mediale (cdm) f
coronale (co) f

The meeting place of the coronal and sagittal

sutures; that is, the point of meeting of the two

parietals with the frontal.

The median point in the anterior margin of the

occipital foramen.

The most lateral point on the surface of the condyle

of the mandible.

The most medial point on the surface of the condyle

of the mandible.

The two points in the lateral margins of the frontal

which mark the termini of the maximum breadth

of this bone. These points n jgt be symmetrically

placed with reference to the median line.

'xrh

xns

FIG. 24. 'Anatomical landmarks on the skull; details about face and nose,
ing of the abbreviations see the list on pp. 42-48.

For the mean-

coronion (cr) f
dacryon (d) f

ectoconchion (ec) f

ectomolare (ecm) f

The point of the coronoid process of the mandible.
A point just within the inner margin of the orbit,
where the lacrimo-maxillary suture meets frontal
bone (Fig. 24).

The point where the orbital length line, parallel
to the upper border, meets the outer rim. This
line must be perpendicular to that measuring the
orbital breadth.

The most lateral point on the outer surface of the
alveolar ridge, opposite the middle of the second
upper molar tooth; used in taking the maxillary
breadth. (Fig. 25, x).

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

endomolare (enm) f

euryon (eu) f

frontomalare orUtale (fmo) t

frontomalare temporale (fmt) f
frontotemporale (ft) f

genion (gen)

The most medial point on the inner surface of the
alveolor ridge opposite the middle of the second upper
molar tooth; used in taking the palatal breadth
(Fig. 25, </).

The two points opposite each other on the sides
of the skull which form the termini of the line of
greatest breadth.

The orbital end of the fronto-jugal (fronto-malar)
suture, that is, its superficial part.
The outer, or temporal, end of the foregoing.
The most medial point on the incurve of the tem-
poral ridge, just above the fronto-jugal suture.
The median point of the genial tubercles of the body
of the mandible, lingual side.

FIG. 25. Anatomical landmarks concerned with maxillary and palatal measurements.
For the meaning of the abbreviations see pp. 42-48.

glabella (g)

gnathion (gn)
gonion (go) f

The most prominent point in the median line
between the two eyebrow ridges, a little above
the fronto-nasal suture.

The lowest median point on the lower border of the
mandible.

Literally, the angle of the mandible between body
and ramus. In practice this is hard to determine
in jaws with a rounded angle, but in cases where this
is pronounced the point taken is the anterior lower
corner of the square process forming the angle.
Where the outline is softer and more rounded, by
following the marginal contour backwards from the
body, there is seen a slight curve upwards, imme-

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

hormion (h)
infradentale (id)

inion (i)

klitiim (k)

lambda (1)
lacrimale Qa) f

diately behind which there is at least the suggestion
of a tubercle. This is the point taken as the gonion.
The median point in the suture between vomer
and sphenoid; the median point where the former
overlaps the latter. Seen in norma basilaris.
The highest point in the anterior alveolar mar-
gin of the mandible in the median line, between
the two medial lower incisors. It corresponds
to the prosthion of the upper jaw.
This point, although one of the first employed
and named, was rather loosely designated as the
highest point in the occipital protuberance, or
even as simply the occipital protuberance it-
self. It was furthermore considered to be the
most posterior point in the outer surface of the
skull, so that the "glabella-inion line," drawn
between the two points named, was considered to
measure the maximum length. In some skulls
this may be the case, but more often such is not
the case, hence the establishment of the opistho-
cranion, as the terminus of the maximum length
line, which may or may not coincide with the inion.
In the majority of skulls it may be denned in its
original intention as the center of the occipital
protuberance, although it should never be placed at
or near the end of an elongated, downward-project-
ing process, which sometimes occurs. When the
occipital protuberance is weak or ill-defined, the
inion may be ascertained as the point where the
superior curved (nuchal) lines cross the median
plane.

An internal inion, the endinlon, is located at the
crossing of the crucial ridges which divide the
cerebral and cerebellar fossae. Its position may
be determined by inserting the thumb into the
occpital foramen, and when this is done the fore-
finger can readily determine the external point
directly opposite it. Some observers use this ex-
ternal point, opposite the endinion, as the true
inion, and determine it by this means, marking
its position upon the outer surface with a pencil.
In many cases these two inia will be found to co-
incide, but as this is not always the case, it is recom-
mended for each investigator to state definitely
which point he uses.

A median internal point, best located in a median
sagittal section, as hi Fig. 26. It is the median
point in the posterior margin of the sella turcica,
which lodges the hypophysis in life, and is thus
placed opposite the tylion.

The meeting place of the sagittal and lambdoidal
sutures, of the two parietal bones with the occipital.
The point of intersection of the posterior lacrimal
crest with the fronto-lacrimal suture (Fig. 24).

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

linguale (li)

lingulare (Ig) f

The upper terminus of the mandibular symphysis
on the posterior, or lingual, aspect; the median
point in the posterior alveolar margin of the man-
dible, on the other side of the bone from the infra-
dentaie.

The point of the lingula, or thin plate project-
ing over the inferior dental canal upon the inner
surface of the mandibular ramus.

FIG. 26. Certain important measures obtained from the median craniogram. This
figure was taken from the skull of a female negro from the American Museum of Natural
History, New York City, No. 997,745.

maxillofrontale (mf) f
mastoidale (ms) f
mentale (ml) f

The point of intersection of the anterior lacrimal
crest, or the crest prolonged, with the fron to-maxil-
lary suture (Fig. 24).

The lowest point on the mastoid process; that is
the point of contact with a table upon which the
skull is placed, when resting upon its base.
The lowest point in the margin of the mental foramen.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

nasion (n)
nasospinale (ns)

obelion (ob)

ophryon (on)

opisthion (o)
opisthocranion (op)

(ol)

orbitale (or) f
pogonion (pg)
porion (po) f

prosphenion (ps)
prosthion (pr)

pteryon (pt) f

The upper end of the internasal suture, where
it meets the frontal bone; the point where the two
nasal bones and the frontal come together.
This is practically the acanlhion, the "nasal spine"
of the older authors, but avoids the frequent errors
caused by the varying degree of development found
in this process. This point is defined as a point
(usually within the bone substance), where a line
tangent to the two lateral curves of the lower
margin of the piriform aperture crosses the median
line. In practice it is usual to take the lowest point
of this margin upon one side of the median line.
The point in the sagittal, or interparietial, suture
where it is intersected by a line drawn to connect
the two small interparietal foramina. In the
frequent cases in which there is but one of these,
this point may be readily determined by it, and
where both are absent, the point lies approximately
at the place where the suturing is the simplest.
. The point in the median line of the frontal bone
where it is crossed by a line drawn to connect the
two fronlolemporalia.

The median point of the posterior margin of the
occipital foramen.

This point is anatomically an indefinite one, and
is simply the posterior end of the maximum length
line of the skull, drawn from the glabella; the point
where the posterior leg of the compass rests when
spanning the greatest length. It may coincide
with the inion, but is usually above this point. It
is a synonym for exlremum occiput and occipitale.
A point in the bony palate where the line drawn
tangent to the curves in the alveolar margin back
of the two medial incisor teeth crosses the median
line (Fig. 25).

The lowest point in the margin of the orbit; one of
the points used in denning the Frankfort Horizontal.
The most projecting median point of the chin, on
the anterior surface (mental process).
The uppermost point in the margin of the auditory
meatus; the points which, with the orbit alia, define
the Frankfort Horizontal.

The median point in the spheno-ethmoidal suture
upon the inner surface of the skull (Fig. 11).
The lowest point of the intermaxillary suture, upon
the alveolar margin, between the two medial in-
cisors.

This is a region, rather than a point, and desig-
nates the upper end of the greater wing of the
sphenoid, with the bordering bones, frontal, pari-
etal, and temporal. Here the relation of these
bones, and consequently of the sutures, is markedly
variable, and is the subject of special anthropological
interest.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

rhinion (rhi)
sphenoidale (sphen)

slaphylion (sta)

slephanion (st)
subspinale (ss)

supraglabellare (sg)

vertex (v)
zygion (zy) f

zygomaxillare (zm) f

The lower free end of the internasal suture.
A median, internal point, best located in a median
sagittal section as in Fig. 28. It is the median
point of the anterior clinoid process, and thus
marks the anterior margin of the sella turcica,
opposite the Klition. Called also tylion.
The point in the median line of the back of the
hard palate (interpalatal suture) where it is crossed
by a line drawn tangent to the curves of the posterior
margin of the palate (Fig. 25).

The point where the temporal ridge crosses the
coronal suture.

A median point where the base of the nasal spine
passes into the alveolar portion of the upper jaw.
This is best seen in a profile curve, where it lies
at the deepest part of the inward curve. It is
of use in the study of alveolar prognathism , as it marks
the upper limit of the alveolar region of the maxillary.
It lies about midway between nasospinale and
prosthion.

The deepest median point in the supraglabellar
fossa. As this fossa is present only when there
is some development of the superciliary ridges
the point in question is frequently absent, or but
slightly marked, especially in females, but when
even a slight indication of it is present, its location
can be made out in a profile median curve of the
frontal bone, It serves to divide this curve into
the two portions, pars glabellaris and pars cerebralis,
the relative pioportions of which aid in the deter-
mination of the relative size of the supraorbital
crests. This point nearly coincides with the ophryon,
a point now seldom used.

The highest median point in a skull, when placed
on the Frankfort Horizontal.

The most lateral point of the zygomatic arch; a
point determined by trial measurement and not
by anatomical relations.

The lowest point externally in the suture between
the maxillary and jugal (malar) bones.

Measurements

Prescribed Measurements of the Skull; International Agreement of
Monaco, 1906. From the time of Broca individual anthropologists were
in the habit of employing whatever measurements of the skull they found
desirable, without regard to the work of others, and, in addition to this,
did not correspond in the method of taking the same measurement. This
had the advantage of gradually increasing the number of measurements
employed, as new ones were being constantly devised by these independ-

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 49

ent investigators, but had the obvious disadvantage of rendering a direct
comparison of the work of different craniometrists uncertain or impossible.

To improve this disadvantageous state of things the International
Anthropological Congress of 1906, which met at Monaco in April of that
year, appointed a committee to establish a definite list of the most com-
monly used and essential cranial measurements, to include also the pre-
cise method by which each should be taken.*

These measurements were presented under 32 numbers, although certain
ones, like the " Cranial heights, " and the "Measures of the bony palate, "
included several separate measures. A few were marked "facultative,"
to be further tried out before becoming canonical.

Since that time anthropometrists have endeavored to keep to these
prescriptions, although they are considered purely as an expression of
the general opinion, and not in any way binding upon the individual
investigator. It is, however, to be expected that in case of departure
from the prescription a good reason for such departure should be given,
to avoid careless, or otherwise purposeless, variation from the generally
accepted standard.

The measurements selected by the Agreement of 1906, are given here.
In compiling them the original reports, as given in French, German,
and English versions, were used, but the language used here is put into
more recent form, and employs in the designations of termini many land-
marks more recently determined, and precisely denned in the list above.
They are the following:

A. THE SKULL PROPER

1. Maximum Cranial length; the greatest diameter of the cranium in
the median sagittal plane.

Anatomical points; in front, the glabella behind, the most salient
point of the supra-occipital in the median line; the opis-
thocranium. Cr.

In taking this measure one point of the calipers is held upon the
glabella, while the other is passed over the surface of the supra-
occipital in the median line. The point which gives the maximum
measurement is the opisthocranium, and this measurement is the
one sought.

2. Glabella-inion length; this is similar to the preceding, except that
a definite point, the inion, is used. This point is often difficult of exact
location, however, and the value of this measurement may be considered
somewhat doubtful (cf. above, under Landmarks inion). Cr.

3. Maximum cranial breadth; this is the greatest breadth that can be
obtained while keeping the two points of the craniometer opposite each

"The members of this Committee were as follows: Waldeyer (president), G.
Sergi (vice-president), Papillault (secretary), Hamy, Herv6, Lissauer, v. Luschan,
Pittard, Pozzi, Verneau.

50 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

other; the maximum transverse diameter, perpendicular to the median
plane. Cr.

4. Cranial height

(a) basilo-bregmatic (basion-bregmd) height; from basion to bregma.

(6) auriculo-bregmatic height; the difference in level between porion
and bregma. Several special forms of instrument have been
devised for taking this measurement, but the simplest method,
and fairly accurate after a little practice, is that of using the
rod compass (the anthropometer .put together in a special
way (cf. above, under Instruments). The skull is held in the
left hand, and the rod compass is held so far as possible in a
plane parallel to the median sagittal plane of the skull. The
upper leg should be drawn out longer than the lower one, the
latter placed on the porion and the upper across the top of
the cranium, directly upon the bregma.

5. Least frontal breadth; the distance between the two fronto-
temporalia. SC.

6. Greatest frontal breadth; the largest measure that can be obtained
by the slide compass, both points of the instrument being placed on the
lateral edges of the frontal bone; the distance between the two coronalia.
SC.

7. Bimastoid breadth; the distance between the most lateral portions
of the outer surfaces of the two mastoid processes, measured perpendicu-
larly to the median plane (cf. modification of this below). Cr.

8. Bizygomatic breadth; the greatest breadth obtained by measuring
across the zygomatic arches, perpendicularly to the median plane. The
points where the two feet of the compass rest when this measurement is
obtained are the zygia, movable points like the 'opisthocranium.
Cr or RC.

9. Nasion-basion line; the distance between the two points named. Cr.

10. Prosthion-basion line; the distance between the two points named.
Cr or SC.

11. Nasion-gnathion line; the distance between the two points named.
The mandible must be put in place, the teeth in contact, and the condyles
resting in the mandibular (glenoid) fossae of the skull. SC or RC.

12. Nasion-prosthion line; the distance between the two points named.
SC or RC.

13. Nasal length; the upper limit for this is the nasion; the lower is
theoretically the nasospinale. Since this latter point is usually within
the substance of the bony process forming the nasal spine, the lowest point
of the lower margin of the nasal aperture, a little on one side of the median
line, is used instead (cf. under Landmarks; subspinale, above). SC.

14. Nasal breadth; the greatest breadth found within the lateral mar-
gins of the nasal aperture, measured horizontally; i.e., perpendicularly to
the median plane. SC.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 51

15. Interorbital breadth; the distance between the two lacrimalia (cf.
under Measurements slightly modified, below). SC.

16. Orbital breadth; the inner terminus of this line is the dacryon, the
outer that point in the outer rim of the orbit which gives the maximum dis-
tance from the dacryon. This latter is called the ectoconchion, a movable
point. Let the line run as nearly as possible parallel with the upper and
lower orbital rims, which are inclined to be fairly straight and parallel
(cf. under Measurements slightly modified, below). SC.

17. Orbital height; the maximum distance between the upper and lower
borders of the orbit at right angles to the previous measure (No. 16). In
taking this avoid the supra-orbital notch. SC.

18. Maxillo-alveolar breadth; the distance between the two ectomalaria,
i.e., the most lateral points upon the outer surface of the alveolar ridge
opposite the second molar teeth. This measure gives the maximum
breadth of the alveolar ridge, and is to be taken at right angles to the
median axis of the palate (the prosthion-alveolon line of the next measure-
ment). Any exostosesor other projections, such as abnormal tooth roots,
are to be avoided. SC or Cr.

18 (bis). Maxillo-alveolar length; the prosthion-alveolon line. The
alveolon is determined by the use of a fine knitting needle laid across the
posterior ends of the alveolar processes of the two sides. SC. The point
where this crosses the median line is the alveolon (cf. above, u 1 der
alveolon; also Fig. 25}.

19. Measures of the bony palate (tentative).*

(a) Palatal length* .the orale-staphylion line. This is sufficiently
described under the definitions of the two terms involved,
under Landmarks; also shown in Fig. 25. SC.

(6) Palatal breadth; the greatest transverse breadth found within
the inner limits of the alveolar arch. The termini are found
along the inner (lingual) sides of the second molar teeth, at
the point v in Fig. 25 (ent omalare) . The line is to be
drawn at right angles to the prosthion-alveolon line. SC.

20. Orbito-alveolar height; the least distance between the lower border
of the orbit and the alveolar border. This measure has been seldom
used, and is now practically given up.

21. Occipital foramen.

(a) Length; taken in the median line, f rom basion to opisthion. SC.
(6) Breadth; taken at right angles to the former; the maximum
breadth line. SC.

22. Sagittal cranial arc; the length of the curve of the cranium,
measured along the median line with the tape measure, from nasion,
over the vertex, to opisthion. For this measure the skull is most con-
veniently held in the lap, or upon the knee, and the tape applied along

* These two measurements, 19a and 6, have now come into general use and
are no longer to be considered tentative.

52 LABORATOKY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

the external surface, being held down from point to point by the finger
or thumb. The same technique is followed in the two following. TM.
23. Transverse cranial arc; taken from the projecting ridge at the
base of the zygoma of one side, directly above the auditory opening,
over the top of the skull to the corresponding point upon the opposite
zygoma. The line must run in a single plane, and must include the
bregma. TM.

23. (bis). Horizontal circumference; measured around the head, over
the superciliary ridges in front, and the occipital protuberance behind,
in such a manner as to get the maximum circumference, while keeping
the line in practically a single plane. TM.

24. Cranial capacity; this is not a linear measurement, but the usual
measurement of the cubic capacity of the interior cavity of the skull.
The Committee made no decision concerning the exact method to employ
relative to the material to be used, etc., but recommended the employ-
ment of several control skulls, that is, either actual crania or artifically
constructed cavities of known capacity, which are to be used frequently
(between each two or three measurements) to test the method; also,
whenever possible, it recommends the use of water in a rubber container.

B. THE MANDIBLE

25. Bicondylar breadth; the greatest breadth between the lateral
surfaces of the two condyles. . SC or RC.

26. Bigonial breadth; the greatest breadth between the summits or
apices of the two angles of the jaw, the gonia. SC or RC.

27. Length (height} of ramus; from the upper surface of the condyle
to the apex of the angle (gonion). As this latter point is frequently
difficult to determine with precision, take as this apex the point of
intersection of the two lines drawn along the borders of the two parts
involved, body and ramus. This measure may be made in a practical
way by letting the mandible rest naturally upon a table, on its lower
border, and measure from the surface of the table, along the posterior
border of the ramus to the highest point of the condyle. SC.

28. Breadth of ramus.

(a) Minimum breadth; the least distance between anterior and
posterior borders.

(6) Maximum breadth (tentative); the breadth across the upper
end of the ramus, from coronoid process to the posterior
border. The two legs of the slide compass (or rod compass)
are placed so as to receive the ramus, one leg applied along
the posterior border, the other tangent to the anterior border
of the coronoid process. SC or RC.

29. Symphyseal height; the distance between the alveolar and the lower
borders of the mandible, measured at the symphysis, in the median plane;
the infra-dentale-gnathion line. SC.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 53

30. Height of the body of the mandible (tentative) ; similar to the last,
but taken in the vertical plane passing between the first and second molars
SC.

31. Maximum thickness of the body of the mandible (tentative); taken
in the plane used in the last measurement, between the first and second
molars. SC.

32. Mandibular angle; this is the only angle included in the pre-
scription of 1906, and records the inclination of the ramus to the plane
of the body, i.e., that of the table upon which the jaw rests when set
upon its lower border. For this, a special instrument is required, which
consists essentially of two boards, hinged together, and with a device
for measuring the angle between them in all positions. The mandible
is placed upon one of these, and the other shut down until it is tangent
to the posterior border of the ramus.

Aside from the above measurement of the skull the committee also proposed
some nineteen measurements of the head and face in the living subject. These will
be found under their proper head (pp. 151-152).

LATER MODIFICATIONS AND ADDITIONS

This Agreement of 1906, with its prescribed measurements, has now
been generally adopted, and forms the foundation of modern craniometry .
A few of the original numbers have been discontinued; several have been
modified; and a number of new ones added, the tabulation of which,
added here, will bring the list of customary cranial measurements up
to the present usage. There is, of course, no reason why an investigator
should not make use of any selection or combination from this list
which may suit his purpose, or why, if he has any special relation to
show, he should not devise whatever new measurements he please, but
in this latter case he must take care to define his new measurements with
complete accuracy, so that others may follow him with precision.

I. Measurements discontinued.

No. 20. Orbito-alveolar height (on side of face.) .

No. 30. Height of the body of the mandible (on side of jaw).

No. 31. Maximum thickness of the body of the mandible (taken

at the plane used in No. 30) .

The last is still made use of occasionally. The two others were among
those marked as tentative in the original prescription.

II. Measurements slightly modified in later practice.

No. 2. Glabella-inion length. This measure is now usually
replaced by the nasion-inion, No. 33 below. This is
also the case in the measurements based upon the dia-
graph tracing of the sagittal contour of the skull (cf . pp. 46,
58), where the perpendiculars used for the calvarial height,
the bregma-position, etc., are erected upon the nasion-
inion, and not the glabella-inion, as formerly.

54 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

No. 4&. Auriculo-bregmatic height. For this the general usage
has become to employ for the upper limit, not the bregma,
but either the vertex, or, more usually, to measure from the
porion, along a plane at right angles to the FH, to the point in
the upper contour where the line happens to fall. This
measure is conveniently taken with the anthropometer,
arranged as a rod compass, holding the instrument upon
a plane judged by the eye to be at right angles to the FH.
It will be seen that slight differences in position will
make no appreciable difference in the result, and after a
little practice a skull may be held in the left hand, and the
rod compass in the right, and an accurate measurement
made, which may be tested by comparing it with others
made either by the same observer or by someone else.
No. 7. Bimastoid breadth. This measure is now taken between
the two points of the two processes involved, instead of using
their two outer surfaces.

No. 15. Interorbital breadth. For this the maxillofrontale is
now preferred to the lacrimale. When both are used they are
distinguished as anterior and posterior respectively.
No. 16. Orbital breadth. With the definite establishment of the
three closely adjacent landmarks, maxillofrontale, dacryon, and
lacrimale, it is clear that anyone of them could be used in obtaining
this measurement. The Monaco Agreement calls for the dacryon.
The other two are also frequently used, and some craniometrists
employ all three, the better to compare with all previous work.
No. 23. (bis) Horizontal circumference. The Monaco Agreement
specifies that the tape should pass over the superciliary ridges.
Some now employ, usually as a second horizontal circumference,
one that passes over the ophryon.

III. Added measurements, not included in the Monaco Agreement, but
which have now come into general use.*

33. Nasion-inion length; a variation of the glabella-inion, as ex-
plained above, under II, No. 2. Cr.

34. Gnathion-basion; measurement taken with the mandible in place,
between the two points named. Cr or SC.

35. Biauricular breadth; from one auriculare through to the other. Cr.

36. (a; Outer biorbital breadth; between the two frontomalaria
temporalia (fmt-fmt). SC.

(&) Inner biorbital breadth; between the two frontomalaria orbitalia
(fmo-fmo).

* These added measurements are compiled from the measurements on the forms
used for the craniometric data of a skull at three different institutions in the year
1913, one German, one Swiss, and one American; viz., Freiburg, Prof. EUGEN FISCHER;
Zurich, Prof. OTTO SCHLAGINHADFEN; and the Peabody Museum at Harvard.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 55

37. Maxillary breadth; between the two zygomaxillary sutures, at
their lowest external point (zm-zm).

38. Greatest occipital breadth; the distance between the two asteria
(ast-asfc). This measures the greatest breadth of the occipital bone
along its lateral sutures, and corresponds to the measurement of the
greatest frontal breadth (No. 6). SC.

39. Frontal arc; the distance nasion-bregma, over the surface. TM.

40. Parietal arc; the distance bregma-lambda, over the surface. TM.

41. Occipital arc; the distance lambda- opisthion, over the surface.
TM.

These three last, 39, 40, and 41, added together, should equal the
measure of the total cranial arc, No. 22. The exact points used for
bregma and lambda may be marked by a pencil line, to insure the use of
the same point for two consecutive arcs, or the judgment may be put
to a severer test by measuring each arc by itself, without reference to
the rest. In a well-marked skull it will be found that these measures,
however taken, will correspond within a millimeter or two.

42. Frontal chord; the distance nasion-bregma, in a straight line, as
measured by the slide compass. SC.

43. Parietal chord; the distance bregma-lambda, in a straight line,
as measured by the slide compass. SC.

44. Occipital chord; the distance lambda-opisthion, in a straight line,
as measured by the slide compass. SC.

These last three measures, 42, 43, and 44, may be also measured upon
the diagraph tracing of the median sagittal curve, and if the two methods
are correctly used, the two should correspond. Certain other distances,
as basion-bregma, nasion-basion, etc., may be also measured upon the
diagraph curve, and a comparison of the two methods will prove each
other. Aside from a number of important angles, the craniogram
furnishes much the best, or sometimes the only method of obtaining
certain other important linear measurements, such as the calvarial
height, the lambda calvarial height, and the bregma perpendicular.
These will be considered below, under the subject of the median sagittal
craniogram.

45. Mandibular length; the distance between the anterior point of the
mandible and the median point of a line drawn across the posterior
surface of the two gonia. Place a knitting needle across the back of the
gonia, and measure from the middle point of this to the anterior limit
of the jaw, anterior surface, both in the median sagittal plane.

MEASUREMENTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM THE MEDIAN SAGITTAL

CRANIOGRAM

Many of the above measurements of cranium and face may be taken
upon the median profile curve of a skull, when drawn accurately by

56 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

means of the diagraph. Of all craniograms, or tracings thus made, this
one, the median sagittal, is by far the most important, and is so emphat-
ically the craniogram par excellence, that it is the one always referred to
when the word is used without modification, (cf. Fig. 26, p. 46).

Quite aside from its use in furnishing another method of presenting
the more usual lines, and thus corroborating the results of direct measure-
ment, there are certain important internal lines, such as the calvarial
height line, or the bregma position line, that are obtainable in no other
way than by means of this craniogram. Especially, however, in the
presentation of various angles, mainly internal ones, lies the chief useful-
ness of this figure, where they need merely to be constructed by means
of lines drawn between the proper points, and then read off with a
transparent protractor.

The most important data obtainable from such a craniogram may
be presented here in three groups; corroborative measurements, linear
measurements, and angles.

1. Corroborative Measurements

Any linear measurements that may also be taken directly on the
skull will serve to test the accuracy of a craniogram, but the longer the
line employed, so much greater is the visible error, and the severer the
test. Thus the two best measurements for this purpose are the two
greatest dimensions of the profile view, the maximum length and the
basion-bragma height. In making this test a discrepancy of 1 mm.
or so is not a serious one, as it may be accounted for in large part by the
varying width of the pencil point, or a slightly oblique position of the
median axis of the pencil. Such slight discrepancies should be corrected
in the craniogram by erasing and redrawing portions of the curve, yet
such corrections should not be attempted if they involve much more
than the breadth of the pencil mark.

In this enumeration, as everywhere throughout this book, measure-
ments bear the same numbers as when first mentioned; all measurements
taken from the foregoing list, therefore, will here have the former numbers,
(between 1-45) while those first introduced here are furnished with
numbers from that point on. This will make it easy to precisely desig-
nate a given measurement anywhere in the text, and to readily look up
its precise specifications in the list in which it is described in full.

1. Total cranial length; the ruler is to be applied to the craniogram,
holding the zero point on the most bulging point of the glabella. The
point of maximum length can be readily found by slightly rotating the
ruler about this anterior end, until the furthest distance is secured.
This should naturally correspond to the same, obtained by the crani-
; ometer from the skull, allowance being made for the width of the pencil
mark at either end, 1 mm. or so for each.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 57

4a. Basion-bregma height; this should correspond within about the
same limits as the previous one.

[The correspondence of these two lines, placed nearly at right angles
to each other, in both craniogram and in the skull by direct measurement,
will usually establish the practical correctness of the former. Where,
however, the special accuracy of a particular region is desired, use may
be made of other lines, such as the nasion-basion, or the basion-prosthion,
if the discussion especially concerns the facial region; or in the chords
and arcs involved, while investigating a profile contour.]

2. Important Lines .

The most of these may be taken also direct, and hence have already
found a place upon the previous list. Many, however, serve here in the
construction of some important angle; as a base for some special perpen-
dicular; or otherwise in some special relation, which makes it convenient
to designate them by other names. These new names are given here,
but the lines themselves may be recognized by their numbers, which are
the same as in the previous list. The old names also are added in
parenthesis, (cf. Figs. 26, 27, 28).

33. The calvarial base (nasion-inion line). This line serves as the
base upon which the calvarial height line [48] is erected.

9. Cranio-basal length (nasion-basion line). This line serves as the
entire length of the basis cranii, from the anterior edge of the occipital
foramen, forward to the anterior limits of the skull. Few people, even
anatomists, realize to how great an extent the axis of the human skull
has become shortened and bent together; bringing the occipital foramen
almost in contact with the posterior nares, and placing it about in the
center so that the heavy head, in the erect position of the body, is almost
balanced upon the top of the vertebral column.

10. Facial depth (prosthion basion line).

34. Inferior facial depth (gnathion-basion line). As the gnathion
properly lies underneath the jaw, where it serves as the limit for lines of
measurement coming from the direction of the nasion, it is more natural
to draw this, line, from the basion, not to the gnathion, but to the most
anterior point of the jaw, which is about at the pogonion. It may be
possible ultimately to remedy this inconvenience, even to the establish-
ment of a new landmark, between pogonion and gnathion, but at present
the gnathion is the point spscified, and one should be careful to use it,
bringing the termination of the Inferior facial depth line, and that measur-
ing the total facial length [11] to the same point.

12. Superior facial length (nasion-prosthion line). [This line, taken
with that of the superior facial length and the cranio-basal length, forms
an important triangle, which is practically coincident with the nasal
cavity. This may be found of importance in the future study of the

58 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

proportions of this part; the most important angle will probably be found
to be the one with apex at the basion (n-ba-pr), as it subtends the superior
facial length.]

11. Total facial length (nasion-gnathion line).

46. Nasion-lambda line. This, although capable of direct measure-
ment, is not used otherwise than in the craniogram, where is serves as
the base for the lambda calvarial height [49], as the nasion-inion line
serves for the calvarial height [48]. Of itself, this line and its measure-
ment, has not been found of value.

47. Basion-lambda line; the main importance of this line is its partici-
pation in forming the great cranial quadrilateral, nasion-bregma-lambda-
basion, described below.

42. Frontal chord ( nasion-bregma) .

43. Parietal chord (bregma-lambda).

44. Occipital chord (lambda-opisthion).

48. Calvarial height; the longest perpendicular that can be erected
upon the nasion-inion line [33] within the medial contour curve of the
cranium. *

49. Lambda calvarial height; the length of the perpendicular erected
upon the nasion-lambda line [46], precisely as in the case of the calvarial
height [48].

50. Bregma position line; this is a perpendicular, dropped from the
bregma upon the nasion-inion line, the point where it touches the latter
designating the bregma position. This line differs from most in that
it has litl le value in itself, but is used to determine an important point.
This point may be made available for comparison by forming an index the
numerator of which is the distance along the nasion-inion line from nasion
to the bregma position point, and the denominator the entire nasion-
inion line [index 36, below].

51. Frontal perpendicular; the longest perpendicular that can be
erected upon the frontal chord, within the limits of the frontal arc. This
line is important in itself, and also in its definition of the point where it
touches the arc, and marks the apex of the frontal curvature angle.

52. Parietal perpendicular; specifications and uses like that of the
previous one, save that it concerns the parietal bone.

53. Occipital perpendicular; specifications and uses like that of the
two previous ones, save that it concerns the occipital bone.

3. Other Possibilities of a Craniogram

A craniogram, as a contour tracing, does not contemplate the locating
of any point not included within this outer contour, like bregma, lambda,

* The first calvarial height proposed used the glabella-inion, instead of the nasion-
inion, for the base. This was by G. SCHWALBE, in his study of Pithecanthus erectus-
cf. Zeitschr. Morphol. u. Anthropol. Bd. I. 1899, pp. 38+.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 59

etc. It is quite possible, however, to find with the needle of the diagraph
certain essential points upon the lateral surface, and thus to indicate
1 hem also upon the craniogram. By thus locating porion and orbitale, for
instance, the FH may be drawn in upon a craniogram, often a great
advantage in getting relationships; while by drawing lines from these
points to those upon the outer contour, certain unexpected new lines and
angles may be formed, some of which may be found to be of much service.
When a craniogram is made from a skull properly oriented within a cubic
craniophore, a tracing of the frame of the craniophore, drawn about the
craniogram, will serve to orient it, and, if either one of the points that are
used in the determination of the FH be present, this important horizontal
may be added.

Measurement of the Cranial Capacity. This procedure, No. 24 of the
prescriptions of 1906, is a very old one, and developed early in cranial
investigation. It consists essentially in first filling the entire cranial
cavity with some material consisting of small, dry, granules, and then
measuring it accurately by pouring it out into a graduated glass cylinder.
There are, however, many chances of error in this procedure, which have
been so far as possible eliminated by various devices.

In the first place the larger orifices of the skull, except the occipital
foramen, which is left for filling and emptying, are plugged with cotton,
taking care not to allow the cotton plugs to project into the interior. The
material to be used in measuring is then poured in by means of a tin
funnel, the skull being held with the occipital foramen uppermost.
For filling material different investigators have employed sand, mustard
seed, canary seed, peas, small shot (No. 8), glass beads and other things.
Recently attempts have been made to use a liquid, water or mercury, in
conjunction with a thin rubber bag, which expands as filled, and assumes
the shape of the cranial cavity, and in the prescription of 1906 water is to
be used "whenever possible." A liquid has the decided advantage of
being non-compressible, and thus of occupying the same space in the
measuring cylinder as in the skull, insuring an exactness of result not
possible with the dry media, which can be compressed to a considerable
extent.

Naturally a dry medium has in practical application a decided ad-
vantage over a liquid, and the chance of error through a different amouut
of compression in skull and cylinder has been reduced to its lowest terms
through an improved technique. Perhaps for general purposes some
small seed is the best, and of the various possibilities millet-seed, as re-
commended by Martin, is the best of all. This seed, not always easy
to obtain in the United States, is lenticular, not spherical, and has a very
smooth coat, and thus packs closely together, the individual seed
slipping into place very easily. Mustard seed is also good, but the
spherical seeds do not pack so completely, and the coat is not as smooth
as millet.

60 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

In filling, either the skull or the cylinder, the main point is, not to
pack. There is a great temptation to do so, and the beginner will almost
invariably press on the seed, through .the occipital foramen, with his
finger, with the intention of completely filling the space. In all cases,
however, the rule must be invariable, to let the medium fall naturally,
the separate granules arranging themselves as they will, without forcing
them to fit together more tightly than they do under the influence of
gravitation. In the same way neither skull nor cylinder is to be shaken
or thumped down upon the table, for such procedures tend to pack the
medium more tightly together, and cannot well be administered in both
skull and cylinder to the same degree. To insure a uniform fall of the
medium into the cylinder a simple apparatus has been devised in the
form of a large tin cup of about 2000 cm. capacity, and with a funnel-
shaped bottom having a round hole, 2 cm. in diameter, precisely in the
center. This hole may be opened or shut from the outside by means of
a simple rod apparatus, which slides a flat cover to and from the hole.
The cup receives the seed, or other medium, directly from the skull,
poured from the occipital foramen, and is then placed upon the 2000 cm.
glass cylinder, exactly centered with it and the whole apparatus placed
upon a perfectly level table. The hole is then opened, and the seed pours
down in a uniform column through the center of the cylinder, falling at
the bottom in the center and distributing itself evenly upon all sides.
When properly done the surface of the seed should present a slightly con-
vex surface, which can be readily made level by the use of a flat disc
of wood on the end of a rod, the disc being a little smaller in diameter
than the inner dimensions of the cylinder itself. Even here care should
be taken not to compress the seed, but to simply level the surface so
that it can be more accurately read, which is done by a gentle patting,
accompanied by a slight twisting of the rod.

Unfortunately the same precision cannot be obtained in filling the skull,
but a result similar to that obtained by the tin cup may be produced by
dropping the medium through the occipital foramen through a tin fun-
nel which is kept supplied with seed, and held up so that the stream of seed
falls from a like distance. Towards the end, a slight use of either the
finger, or a small wooden cylinder, is required, to fill the lateral spaces at
the top, but no especial pressure is to be exerted, and the action is to be
limited to about the same amount that is used in the cylinder in leveling
the top. By thus employing merely the natural amount of packing inci-
dent to the material used when falling naturally, and taking care not to
exert pressure, the result should be uniform in skull and cylinder, and
the latter should register the actual cranial capacity of the skull thus
measured.

As a check on the method, and a test as to whether the results are
accurate or not, the method of using a "control skull "is advocated. This
is either a real human skull of known capacity, or one made of bronze,

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 61

glass, or some other hard material, the exact cubic contents of which is
known. The control skull is measured every little while during the work,
perhaps between every two or thiee skulls, and the result compared with
the known capacity. A marked discrepancy shows that the work is
not being done right, and will indicate whether the medium is too much
or too little compressed.

A natural skull is made into such a control by sawing off the skull-cap
in the usual manner, and then treating the entire inner surface with some
waterproofing mixture, plugging all the foramina, and finally cementing
on the skull cap by the same material. This is then waterproof, and may
be accurately measured by this medium, the result of which is definite and
invariable. Then when thoroughly dried out it is ready for use. The
exact capacity should be clearly marked upon the skull itself. It is to be
marked that this result is not necessarily the original capacity of the skull,
but that it is probably modified by the waterproofing cement. It is now
simply a receptacle of known capacity and with the exact shape of the
receptacles with which the anthropometrist is dealing, thus reproducing
the exact conditions presented with the normal skulls.

Finally, as mainly a convenience, in laboratories where there is much
of this work going on, a special table should be provided, with a concave
top, sloping downward towards the center, where there should be a small
hole, communicating with a receptacle placed underneath, through which
the extra grains of the medium, the constant spilling of which is inevitable
could be collected and returned to the proper place. As a matter of con-
venience the top of the table should be large enough to hold the utensils
employed, and should be in close connection with a level portion, where
the filling of the cylinder and similar work could take place. Each
laboratory will easily work out the details of such a piece of furniture for
itself.

While the cranial capacity is an indication of the weight of the brain,
the two are by no means the same. Even were the specific gravity of
brain substance the same as that of water, there would be a discrepancy,
for the cranial cavity contains, not only the brain, but the wrappings,
and blood vessels which including the venous sinuses, present together
a considerable volume, which if there were nothing else, would make
the weight of the brain in grams considerably less than the cranial capacity
in cubic centimeters. But, aside from this the specific gravity of brain
substance is a little lighter than water, a circumstance which would still
further decrease the number in the reduction of cubic centimeters to
grams.

Taking all things into consideration, including the fact that in heads of
different size the proportions of brain weight to cranial capacity vary
also, Welcker, in 1886, prepared the following table, which is perhaps, the
best we have at present (Martin, p. 640).

62 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Where the cranial capacity is between 1200-1300, take for each

With a cranial capacity of Take for each 100 cc. a brain weight of

1200-1300 91 grams

1300-1400 92 grams

1400-1500 93 grams

1500-1600 94 grams

1600-1700 95 grams

Bolk (1904) gave the following table of the percentage of brain weight
to cranial capacity at the different ages of life. It will be noticed that
this is the greatest at 50, after which, through senile changes, the weight
of the brain decreases, while the cranial capacity naturally remains the
same.

Age, years Percentage of brain weight to cranial capacity

30 73.7-94.0

40 90.0-96.5

50 90.0-95.2

60 89.2-93.4

70 88.1-93.8

80 85.2-90.1

90 84.1-88.4
over 90 81.5

Earlier Manouvrier, without considering the matter as to the age of
life, gave, as a general average of the percentage of brain weight to cranial
capacity, 87 %. No author has found any notable sexual difference.

Indices

Indices of Cranium and Face, with Classification of Values. The

following list of Indices includes the most of those which have been found
of value in craniological comparisons thus far. As they are merely a
simple numerical method of expressing the relationship of definite parts
and have been devised to express more precisely certain differences to
which the attention of the observer has been called, it is to be expected
that, with the inauguration of new comparisons, there will appear from
time to time new indices to express them. Indices of the skull involving
direct measurements, may be conveniently grouped as those of the
Cranium, those of the Face, and those which express Comparisons be-
tween the two. These are followed by those derived from the
era niogram.

I. INDICES OF THE CRANIUM

maximum cranial breadth [2] X 100
1. Length-breadth index - : r^-,

maximum cranial length [1]

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 63

Classification of Values

ultradolichocranial* below 65

hyperdolichocranial 65-70**

dolichocranial 70-75

mesocranial 75-80

brachycranial 80-85

hyperbrachycranial 85-90

ultrabrachycranial ' 90+

[This index is available for the living, but the values of the separate
classes are to be advanced one point. Thus, a brachycephalic
head (living) runs, not from 80 to 85, but from 81 to 86, and so on].

2 Length height index basion - bre g ma hei S ht M X 10

. J^tts f IU if I ft c I Url I/ I f frCtt/X . * i i

maximum cranial length [1]

chamaecranial below 70

orthocranial 70-75

hypsicranial 75 +

This index is obviously not applicable to the living.

r . -. , . , . , auriculajifcight [4c] X 100

3. Length-auricular height index -. | ... A . r , ,

maximuj^Hpnial length [1J

chamaecranial below 58

orthocranial 58-63

hypsicranial 63 +

This index may be used on the living head, and with the same
values. The terms to be used are chamaecephalic, orthocephalic,
etc., as with No. 1.

4. Breadth-height index basion-bregma height M X 100

maximum cranial breadth [2]

tapeinocranial below 92

metriocranial 92-98

acrocranial 98+

[The three indices 1, 2, and 4, comparing each pair of the three
dimensions, length, breadth, height, together give the dimensions of
a skull viewed as a rectangular box. The length-breadth index
suggests the shape as seen from above (norma verticalis); the

*As suggested by Martin, the suffix "cranial" is here employed to express the
length-breadth index on the skull, and "cephalic" for the corresponding index on
the living head. Thus, a head with an index of 78 is mesocephalic, while the same
head, macerated and reduced to a skull, should have an index of 77 and be mesocranial.

** To be precise the upper limit of each class extends up to the lower one of the
next above, but does not reach it. Thus, the class beginning at 75 extends up to
the one beginning at 80, but ends at 79.99 +. [It is, however, more convenient, and
more easily remembered to write these limits as here (75-80, etc.) and no confusion
need arise if the actual state of the case is well understood.]

64 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

length-height, as seen from the side (norma lateralis); and the
breadth-height, as seen from behind (norma occipitalis)].

calvarial height [48] X IOC

5. Calvanal height index ; ~ ~ roo1

nasion-inion line [33]

The calvarial height is to be taken from the craniogram; the nasion-
inion line from either the same or by direct measurement.

nasion to foot of bregma perpendicular X 100

6. Bregma position index -. ^-. =^r-

nasion-imon line [33]

[The lesser the index the farther forward the bregma, and conse-
quently the higher the position of the frontal bone. The upper
measurement is taken from the craniogram; the nasion-inion line
from either the same or by direct measurement].

nasion-inion line [33] X 100

7. Sagittal cranial curvature index

8. Transverse cranial curvature index

sagittal cranial arc [22]
biauricular breadth [35] X 100

transverse cranial arc [23]

least frontal breadth [5] X 100

9. Transverse fronto-panetal index - ; r-j-r -5., ro1

maximum cranial breadth [3]

stenometopic below 60

metriometopic 66-69

eurymetopic 69+

10. Indices showing the Relations of the Various Sagittal Arcs.

parietal arc [40] X 100

(a) Fronto-panetal index ^ -j ^^.

frontal arc [39]

/JA . ., 7 . , occipital arc [41] X 100

(b) Fronto-occipital index - -~ r ^^.

frontal arc [39]

,. , . - occipital arc [41] X 100

parietal arc [40]

. . frontal arc [39] X 100

(d) Fronto-sagittal arc index - -. r ; ^^

total sagittal arc [22]

parietal arc [40] X 100

(e) Paneto-sagittal arc index f- , rr>01

total sagittal arc [22]

. , occipital arc [41] X 100

(/) Occipito-saqittal arc index rr, rrtm

total sagittal arc [22]

11. Indices indicating the amount of curvature (bulging) of each of the
three contour bones of the cranium.

. . frontal chord [42] X 100

(a) Frontal curvature index - : , F^J

frontal arc [39]

parietal chord [43] X 100

(6) Parietal cunature index ^ -, TTTTJ

parietal arc [40]

occipital chord [44] X100

occipital arc [41]

12. 13. Indices of the separate portions of the frontal and occipital arcs.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 65

The frontal and occipital arcs admit each of a separation into two
parts, the proportions of which are of significance. The frontal arc is
divided by the supraglabellare into a pars glabellaris and a pars cerebralis;
the occipital is divided by the inion into an upper and a lower scale
(squama). In each case the various measurements of arcs and chords
may be compared by the use of indices and give details concerning the
contour of the bones in question. Those which concern the forehead are
of especial significance.

12. Indices of the frontal curvature

. chord of pars glabellaris [g - sg] X 100
12 (a) Glabellar curvature index ,. r-^

arc ot pars glabellaris

[This gives the amount of projection (bulging) of the supra-
orbital region, and is especially useful in" comparing the
Neandertal and other prehistoric types with the present species;
also in the study of Australians, and other primitive races].

12M Cerebral curvature index ch rd f pafS cerebralis ^ ~ 6 1 X 10

\U } l w /c/t'C//Ci6 t/M'/C'til'M'/t/ C'/C'tC'C/*!/ P 11*

arc of pars cerebralis

12() Glabello-cerebral index ch< "? ? &***> fr-* 1 X 100

chord of pars cerebralis [sg b]

13. Indices of the occipital curvature

. , chord of upper scale [I i] X 100
13(o) Upper scale cunature index - ^- j_

chord of lower scale [i o] X 100
13(6) Lower scale curvature index- arc of lower scale

13(c) Upper and lower scale index (chords)

chord of lower scale [i o] X 100
chord of upper scale [Z i]

. arc of lower scale X 100
13(d) Upper and lower scale index (arcs) arc of upper scale

[The two last indices give the relative position of the inion.]

14. Index of the occipital foramen

breadth of foramen occipitale [216] X 100
length of foramen occipitale [21a]

[Like other indices, this gives the shape rather then the size.
These indices may be classified as narrow, below 82; average,
82-86; and broad, from 86 on.]

II. INDICES OF THE FACE*

_. i , , . 7 . nasion-gnathion line [11] X 100

15. Total facial index rr - r ,. u ro1

bizygomatic breadth [8]

*Cf. Marie Sawalischin, in Archiv f. Anthropologie, Bd. 8, 1909., pp. 298-307.

66 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

hypereury-prosopic below 80

euryprosopic 80-85

mesoprosopic 85-90

leptoprosopic 90-95

hyperleptoprosopic 95+

[Various facial lengths, other than the one used here, have been
employed by certain anthropometrists, such as the length from
the ophryon, or the supra-orbitale, instead of the nasion. For
the facial breadth, both here and in the next, Virchow used the
zygomaxillare instead of the zygion, and made the breadth
zm-zm, instead of zy-zy.]

nasion-prosthion line [12] X 100

16. Superior facial index - . . -. -,

bizygomatic breadth [8]

hypereuryene below 45

euryene 45-50

mesene 50-55

leptene 55-60

hyperleptene 60+

[The suffix "-ene," in the form -en, was first proposed by Martin
in 1914 to distinguish between the adjectives used for the total face
and the upper face. It is derived from an old Greek root, akin
to the Sanskrit Ana-s, the mouth, and surviving only in a few
adjectives, with the meaning of Face; yvcs, irpo<T-r)vr)s. Whether
it is better thus to differentiate the two facial indices, or to use
the same words, compounded with "-prosopic," stating care-"
fully which index is meant, or relying upon the numerical dif-
ferences of the two groups of indices, must be left for usage to
decide.]

. , zygomaxillary breadth [37] XI 00

17. Zygomatico-malar (luqal) index - s -r~, ' L . ,., ro1

bizygomatic breadth [8]

least frontal breadth [5] X 100

18. Zygomatico-frontal index ^ -. ;

bizygomatic breadth [8]

4 . ,., , . , bigonial breadth [26] X 100

19. Zi/qomatico-mandibular index ?-. -. ; rn p?n

bizygomatic breadth [8]

anterior interorbital breadth [mf mf] X 100

20. Interorbital index

outer biorbital breadth [fmt fmt]3Q

[For the measurement between the eyes the maxillofrontale is now
generally chosen, that known as the anterior biorbital breadth.
(Measurement No. 15, as modified.) This index is therefore
sometimes designated the "Anterior interorbital index."]

n h't ' J or bital height [at rt. angles to orb, breadth] X 100

orbital breadth [16 modified]

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 67

[The orbital breadth of the Monaco Agreement employs the
dacryon instead of the maxillofrontale, but modern usage prefers
the latter. The difference would be so very slight that it would
not seem necessary to calculate two indices.]
chamaeconch below 76

mesoconch 76-85

hypsiconch 85+

nasal breadth [14] X 100

22. Nasal index - n , r ;

nasal length [13, n ns\

leptorrhine below 47

mesorrhine 47-51

chamaerrhine 51-58

hyperchamaerrhine 58+

[The nasal spine is to be located laterally (cf . nasospinale, under
Landmarks; also the description of No. 13)].

maxillo-alveolar breadth [18] X 100

23. Maxillo-alveolar index TH -, -, ; ,, M0 ,. n

maxillo-alveolar length [18 bis]

dolichuranic below 110

mesuranic 110-115

brachyuranic 115+

palatal breadth [196] X 100

24. Palatal index ,, Mr .-j

palatal length [19a]

leptostaphyline below 80

mesostaphyline 80-85

brachystaphyline 85+

mandibular length. [46] X 100

25. Mandibular index

26. Ramus index

27. Dental index

bicondylar breadth [25]
breadth of ramus [28a] X 100

nasion-basion line [9]
[The molar length is that of the two bicuspids plus the three
molars of the upper jaw. The measure is taken from the anterior
(mesial) side of the first bicuspid to the posterior (lateral) side
of the third molar].

microdont below 42

mesodont 42-44

megadont 44+

III. INDICES SHOWING RELATIONS BETWEEN CRANIUM AND FACE

basion-prosthion line [10] X 100

28. Longitudinal cramo-facial index - ^ r-pi ., r ,i

maximum cranial length [1]

bizygomatic breadth [8] X 100

29. Transverse cramo-facial index - r-r-r ,., rr>1

maximum cranial breadth [2]

68 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

nasion-prosthion line [12] X 100
30. Vertical cramo-facial index ,.

basion-bregma line [4a]

IV. INDICES EMPLOYING THE LINES DERIVED FROM A MEDIAN SAGITTAL

CRANIOGRAM

Since certain lines and linear measurements, as stated above, may
be taken either direct or by means of the median sagittal craniogram,
necessitating their appearance in two places, so is also the case with
the indices constructed from them; and, as in the former case, certain in-
dices are here repeated, always with their old numbers.

basion-bregma height [4a] X 100

2. Length-height index : J , { .

maximum cranial length [1]

[For classification of the resulting indices, see above.]

, , calvarial height [48] X 100

5. Calvanal height index - : r- ? ^ roo1

nasion-mion line [33]

[The calvarial height is to be taken fiom the craniogram; the
nasion-inion line from either the same source, or by direct
measurement].

. , nasion to foot of bregma perpendicular X 100

6. Breqma position index = . . ..

nasion-inion line

[As in the last two, the numerator is measured upon the cranio-
gram; the denominator by either method. The lesser the value
of the index the further forward the bregma position, and con-
sequently the more erect the position of the frontal bone].

OD T .. ,. 7 . , . 7 . , basion-prosthion line [10] X 100
28. Longitudinal cranio-facial index - r 4 -

maximum cranial length [1]

nasion-prosthion line [12] X 100

30. Vertical cramo-facial index ; ^- ^ , . .

basion-bregma height [4a]

, , lambda calvarial height [49] X 100

31. Lambda calvarial height index - = , , - ,'-.

nasion-lambda line [46]

[As in the last, both measures may be taken from the craniogram;
or the nasion-lambda may be measmred direct].

00 r, . 7 ,. , . , frontal perpendicular [51] X 100

32. Frontal perpendicular index -

frontal chord [42]

[The lower this index the flatter the forehead. This has nothing
to do with the position of the contour line, i.e., whether
the forehead is "high" or "retreating," but refers solely to the
shape of the contour, however placed with reference to the entire
skull].

, . 7 . , parietal perpendicular [52] X 100

33. Parietal perpendicular index - . . , ;

parietal chord [43]

[A low index signifies a flat contour].

rk. .. i j. 7 . j occipital perpendicular [53] X 100

34. Occipital perpendicular index -

occipital chord [44]

[A low index signifies a flat contour].

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 69

V. INDICES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY

[Various indices of weight and capacity have been employed, but
comparisons can be made only in the case of skulls in about the
same condition with respect to dryness, and where nothing of
the bone substance has been lost through decay or weathering.
The following are some of the most important, and are suggestive
of further study along this line].

35. Calvario-cerebral weight index

weight of skull, without mandible X 100
cranial capacity

[Here, as elsewhere when capacity is compared with weight, the
weight must be in grams, the capacity in cubic centimeters]

,,,.,, , . . ,, . , weight of mandible X 100

36. Mandwulo-cereoral weight index 5 : = r

cranial capacity

[Here, and in all indices involving the weight of the mandible, as
in the two below, the mandible is supposed to have a full com-
plement of teeth. Some operators have a lot of odd teeth and
find a corresponding tooth for each one gone, which is to be
weighed with the jaw. Others add an average weight (1.25 g.)
for each tooth missing].

weight of mandible X 100

37. Calvario-mandibular weight index

38. Femero-cranial weight index

weight of skull alone
weight of skull without mandible X 100

weight of the two femora

Angles

Angles. The great majority of the cranial angles in use, either now
or formerly, lie in the median sagittal plane. These, in the early practice,
were rendered available for study by the drastic method of sawing the
skull in two along the median plane, a practice which had the advantage
of laying bare internal as well as external proportions, yet presented the
disadvantages of rendering the specimen practically useless for many
other data, especially breadth measures, involving points upon both
moieties, and measured across the bisected skull. Prof. Huxley, however,
at one time advocated this procedure so strongly that he declared that
the time would come when it would be considered a disgrace for an anthro-
pological collection to possess as much as a single skull that had not been
thus treated.

Fortunately for the science of anthropometry the introduction of the
diagraph, with the possibility of obtaining an accurate profile tracing
of the outer contour, without injury to the skull itself, has rendered
available the study of all external curves and of angles involving only
external parts, without recourse to bisection; while, by means of recently

70 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

devised instruments, certain important internal landmarks may be
reached and located through the occipital foramen without injuring the
specimen. Furthermore, the development of various forms of goni-
ometer, and the establishment of a fixed horizontal, and other means for
a precise orientation, have introduced methods of measuring many of
the most essential angles directly upon the skull.

There is thus usually left to the operator in determining a given angle,
a choice of several methods, but where a craniogram is available it will
often be found very convenient and practical to draw the angles to be
measured upon it, and then measure them on the paper by means of a
transparent protractor. This procedure is so very available, in fact,
that it offers a serious temptation to the investigator to try any angles
that suggest themselves, with the hope that they may prove useful or
even reveal some unexpected and significant relation that has escaped
the eye.

The following angles have either already been extensively used with
success in showing important difference, or are believed to have some
chance of success in the future. As some angular measurements are very
old, older in fact than any linear measurements, the most of these have
now become classical by use, and are of first importance.

1. Metopic or frontal profile angle. This is the angle of inclination of
the nasion-metopion line to the FH, and is best measured direct by the
stationary goniometer. The metopion, the point in the median line
crossed by the line connecting the two frontal eminences, is first ascer-
tained as accurately as possible, and marked on the skull surface by a
pencil. Then, with the skull oriented exactly on the FH, the two points
of the goniometer are placed, the one on the nasion, the other on the
metopion, and the angle read off in the usual way.

The exact apex or center of the two frontal eminences is more easily
ascertained by the finger, rubbed over the surface, than by the eye; or
when, as in an espcically smooth forehead, even this method is insuf-
ficient or uncertain, the point in the median line exactly one-third of the
distance from nasion to bregma is taken as the metopion. GO.

2. Frontal angle of Schwalbe. A somewhat more practical frontal
profile, readily drawn and measured upon a craniogram, and serving
the same purpose of the previous one, is that devised by G. Schwalbe
and used first in his studies of Pithecanthropus erectus.*

As first used this angle was formed by the glabella-inion line with
one drawn upward from the glabella and tangent to the most projecting
point in the frontal profile curve; but in his later use of this Schwalbe
substituted nasion for glabella, and the angle now used is fr-n-i, fr being
the indefinite free end of the frontal tangent. CG.

3. Frontal inclination angle ( = "Bregma angle" of Schwalbe). This
has the advantage over the previous angle in the accuracy of the points

* Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol. Bd. 1, 1899, p. 142.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 71

involved, but does not measure quite the same thing, and cannot be sub-
stituted for it. It measures the inclination of the frontal chord (the
line nasion-bregma) to the nasion-inion line. Schwalbe, who first em-
ployed it under the name of the Bregma angle, measured it upon a cranio-
gram, but it may equally well be measured direct by first setting the
skull upon the nasion-inion, instead of the FH, as a horizontal, and then
measuring with the goniometer, one foot each upon nasion and bregma.
CG or GO.

4. Occipital inclination angle [= "Lambda angle" of Schwalbe].
The inclination of the lambda-inion to the nasion-inion line. This is
best drawn upon the craniogram, as is done with the Frontal inclination
angle, its counterpart at the other end of the nasion-inion. These
two angles, which fix definitely the position of the frontal and occipital
bones, respectively, were called by G. Schwalbe, who first proposed
them, the " bregma" and "lambda" angles, evidently forgetting for the
moment that ang'es are usually named from the point that forms their
apex. He also used the glabella-inion, instead of nasion-inion, in accord-
ance with the usage of the time.*

As with the frontal inclination angle, this may also be measured upon
a skull, set upon the FH, by means of the stationary goniometer, the two
points of which rest upon lambda and inion. CG or GO.

5. Facial profile angle [The modern equivalent of the facial angle of
Camper 1- The inclination of the nasion-prosthion line to the FH.
Use as prosthion the most projecting point of the alveolar border in the
median line and measure with the stationary goniometer. In a skull with
a seriously damaged alveolar border this angle cannot be taken. The
angles have the following values:

hypei prognathous below 7

prognathous 70-80

mesognathous 80-85

orthognathous 85-93

hyperorthognathous 93 +

This angle gives the inclination of the line used in calculating the superior
facial index (index No. 16) and as it includes the slant of the entire upper
face, it is very important, especially as a racial criterion. It was about
this angle, roughly estimated, and very imperfectly designated, that was
used by Petrus Camper as his famous Facial Angle, which yielded such
definite results as a racial criterion, and may be considered the beginning
of the modern science of anthropometry. GO.

6. Nasal profile angle. Similar to the last, -but with a shorter line
subtending the angle, that of the nasal length, instead of the superior

* For the frontal inclination angle cf. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol.
Bd. I, 1899. p. 142. For the occipital inclination angle cf. Zeitschr. fur Morphol
und Anthropol. Sonderheft, 1906. p. 20.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

facial. It is measured in an oriented skull with the stationary gonio-
meter, the two points of the instrument resting on nasion and naso-
spinale. This latter point is determined by drawing a line across the
lower border of the nasal aperture, tangent to the two lateral curves at
their lowest points, and taking the point in this line where it crosses the
median line. This nasio-nasospinale line is nearly as long as the one
used in the previous case (nasion-prosthion), so that in practice the same

FIG. 27.- Diagram illustrating cranial angles,
n-fr, plane used in measuring the metopic angle,
fr-n-i, frontal angle of Schwalbe.

b n i, frontal inclination angle (bregma angle of Schwalbe).
1-i-n, occipital inclination angle (lambda angle of Schwalbe).
n-ba-pr, superior facial length angle,
n-ba-pr (as a triangle) , superior facial triangle,
n-b-l-ba, cranial quadrilateral.

classification has been used, with 'the same values; it has the obvious
advantage of eliminating all uncertainty concerning the often poorly
defined alveolar border, especially when it is brought forward because
of projecting teeth (alveolar prognathism) , and thus exaggerates the
prognathism of the skull as a whole. Should this angle be actually

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 73

substituted for the previous one as the definite measure of the prog-
nathism of a skull, it will probably be found advisable to reduce the
values of the classes in the classification, to correspond with the re-
duction in the size of the angles. GO.

7. Alveolar profile angle. The inclination of the profile of the alveolar
region, measured fromnasospinale to prosthion (its most projecting point) .
This angle can be measured only on skulls with complete alveolar region
in the median line, and is taken with the stationary goniometer upon an
oriented skull, as in the two previous cases. This seems hardly a practical
angle to use, although it is generally recommended, since it is too small
an angle to take accurately, and since it is too easily affected by varying
degrees of projection of the teeth, quite an individual peculiarity and not
racial. GO.

8. Profile angle of ihz nasal roof (the nasal bones). Inclination of the
nasion-rhinion line, measured in the same way as the last, the two points
of the goniometer resting upon the termini of the line in question. To be
used only in skulls in which the nasal bones are complete. GO.

9. Calvarial base angle. The inclination of the nasion-inion line ( =
calvarial base) to the FH. This is readily measured with the stationary
goniometer on a skull placed upon the FH in a cubic craniophore. The
craniophore is placed so that the norma occipitalis is beneath, and the
norma verticalis towards the instrument. The two points rest respec-
tively upon nasion and inion, and the angle shown is the complement
of the one sought.

The knowledge of the usual values of this angle and of Schwalbe's
frontal angle (2) will allow one to place a fragmentary cranium upon
approximately its proper position, and save one from making such erro-
neous conclusions concerning the set of the head and the slope of the
forehead in life, as was most unfortunately done in the case of the sup-
posed Diprothomo platensis of Ameghino. Fragmentary skulls, consist-
ing of calvarium alone, and this often badly broken, are so frequently
found that a knowledge of this angle, giving the usual relationship of the
nasion-inion line, is extremely useful.*

10. Inclination of the occipital foramen. This is naturally the inclina-
tion which the plane placed across the foramen, and including both basion
and opisthion, makes with the plane of the FH, i.e., a dihedral angle, but
in a symmetrical skull it should have the same value as the angle made

* For the studies of G. SCHWALBE concerning the proper orientation of a skull
fragment, based upon the usual relations of the nasion-inion and glabella-lambda
lines, cf. Zeitschrift fur Morphol und Anthropol. Sonderheft, 1906. Das Schadel-
fragment von Brtix, and especially the diagram on p. 137, where the usual angle
lambda-glabella-inion is given as 20, and the angle glabella-inion FH as 15. The
author, like the rest of the world, was then using the glabella, instead of the nasion
for all such data (e.g., the calvarial base), as is here the case. For the critical study
of Diprothomo by the same author cf. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol., Bd.
XIII, 1910-1911, pp. 209-258.

74 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

by the line basion-opisthion and the median line of the FH, which is
always the line meant in a craniogram involving this horizontal.

As most forms of craniophore use the occipital foramen to fasten the
clamp into which holds the skull, either basion or opisthion or both are
not available, a special form of craniophore is devised which takes hold
of the skull elsewhere. A thin strip of metal is then attached to both
basion or opisthion by wax, plastilena, or some similar substance and the
inclination of this strip taken with the goniometer. When the opisthion
is higher than the basion the angle made with the FH opens backwards
and is marked with a + sign ; when the basion is higher, the angle opens
forwards, and is marked with a sign.

11. Frontal curvature angle.

12. Parietal curvature angle.

13. Occipital curvature- angle.

These angles, all constructed in the same way upon the craniogram,
show with considerable precision the shape of the three contour bones of
the cranium, as they appear in the median line. In each case the longest
perpendicular is erected upon the chord of the bone in question (lines
51, 52, and 53 above), and lines drawn from where this perpendicular
comes in contact with the contour curve to each end of the chord. The
angle thus formed is the angle sought. The greater the angle the flatter
the bone. CG.

14. Occipital flexional angle. This angle, which shows the amount of
bend, or flexion of the two parts of the occipital scale, with apex at the
inion, is drawn upon the craniogram, by the lines 1-i and i-o, and meas-
ured by the protractor. CG.

15. Superior facial length angle. The angle formed at the basion,
by the lines nasion-basion and prosthion -basion (9 and 10), and subtend-
ing the superior facial line. Drawn upon the craniogram, and measured
by the protractor. CG.

16. Facial length angle. Similar to the last, but using the line
gnathion-basion (34), instead of prosthion-basion, and thus subtending
the total, instead of the superior, facial length. Only to be done in
skulls with a good mandible, which is set in the proper position, either
by a spring or by plastilena, before making the craniogram. CG.

Aside from angles, certain triangles or higher polygons are readily
drawn upon a craniogram, or are constructed (like the triangle n-ba-pr)
as a result of the preceding work. The various angles of these may be of
some value, yet their further study falls dangerously near the empirical
method above mentioned. However, there may be mentioned in this
connection one triangle and one quadrilateral, whose position makes them
more or less fundamental in describing the shape of a given skull.

A. The Superior facial triangle (n-ba-pr). This follows and ap-
proximately defines the nasal fossa, being bounded by the cranio-basal

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

length line, and the lines of length and breadth of the superior face.
Whether the angles which have their apices at n and pr are of especial
value is not known, but the third angle, the apex of which is at ba, is
already listed above, and serves to measure the length of the superior face.
B. The Cranial quadrilateral (n-b-l-ba). This figure, more than any
other, especially with the cranial base as one of its sides, serves to define

i.int.
'

Fro. 28. Important angles shown on a sawn skull, illustrating an old method of study;
based upon several drawings of Topinard. Certain well-known lines are given their earlier
French nomenclature to facilitate the reading of French texts of the period of Broca and
Topinard.

n-sphen-ba, the Sphenoidal angle of Welcker.

n-ba, the cranio-basal length, the "cranial base line."

n-ba-pr, the facial triangle of Vogt.

n-ba-a, the facial triangle of Welcker.

The naso-basal angles of Vogt and Welcker, respectively, were used by these two men.
Vogt used the angle n-ba-pr, and Welcker the angle n-ba-a. The two inions, external
and internal, are incidentally shown in this figure.

the profile of the entire cranium. Thus far it is not known to have been
used, but from its appearance, embracing the entire cranial contour, it

76 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

would seem to have some value, which future work may prove. Its
angles at n and I subtend the basion-bregma height; the angles at 6
and ba subtend the nasion-inion (Bi-B^). It is presented here merely
as a suggestion.

II. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN, WITH THE
RIBS AND STERNUM

The Vertebral Column, with the Ribs and Sternum. One of the most
frequently emphasized differences between man and the apes is that of
the degree of forward curvature of the vertebral column in the lumbar
region (lordosis) . This curve which, in its extreme form, is characteristic
of the human back, is displayed to a much lesser degree in the Simiidae,
and in the gibbons (Hylobates), the lowest of the family, is but slightly
indicated.

It is thus generally considered, and with much probability, that this
lumbar curve has been gradual attainment in the evolution of man, and
that, in all probability, the curve would be found to be less in the lower
races, and thus serve as a racial criterion.

The ideal and only complete method of studying this and the other
curves of the vertebral column is by means of accurately made sagittal
sections taken through frozen bodies, but owing to the obvious difficulties,
this had been done in only a few cases, and includes only representatives
of races of higher culture. Much can be done, however, by the study
of the separate vertebrae, since the character of the curve is conditioned
largely by the proportions of the bodies of the vertebrae involved. By
measuring the antero-posterior thickness, of the lumbar centra in the
median line, both dorsally and ventrally, and then comparing the two,
it is found that these parts are wedge-shaped, the most anterior one
slightly, increasing gradually to the fifth, in which this character is the
most pronounced. It is to this that the lumbar curve is largely due, and
thus the degree of curvature may be ascertained by obtaining the above
measurements of the vertebral centra.

As a sufficiently exact measurement is difficult or impossible, and as
the differences between the dorsal and ventral measures of single vertebrae
are but slight, Turner, who first proposed this method, obtained more
accurate figures by adding together the measurements obtained from
twelve individual spinal columns, and comparin r the sums.* Thus, the
ventral measure of the 12 fourth lumbar vertebrae was 336 mm. while
the dorsal measures of the same parts was only 313. In the 12 fifth lumbar
vertebrae the corresponding numbers were 337 and 281, a more pro-
nounced difference, since the ventral measures were practically identical,

* TURNER, SIR WILLIAM: Report on the Human Crania and Other Bones of the
Skeletons Collected During the Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger in the years 1873-76.
Part li. The bones of the Skeleton, publ. in 1886 in the Reports of the Challenger
Expedition, Zoology, Vol. XVI, pp. 1-136.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

while there was a marked disparity in the dorsal one, indicating a more
definite wedge for the fifth than for the fourth. To get the average
difference for a single vertebra these figures are divided by 12, giving for
the fourth lumbar vertebra the figures 28 : 26 mm., and for the fifth,
28 : 23.4.

The amount of curvature in a single spine can be indicated by taking
the above measurements, adding together the five dorsal thicknesses,
and comparing the sum with that obtained by adding the five ventral
ones. The result can be best obtained in the form of a General lumbar
index, thus :

39. General lumbar index

dorsal vertical diam. of lumb. vert. I V X 100

ventral vertical diam. of lumb. vert. I V
The values from this index may be classified as follows :
* curtorhachic ( = convex spine) below 98
orthorhachic ( = straight spine) 98-102
coelorhachic (= hollow spine) 102+

The Special lumbar index for a single vertebra may be obtained in a
similar way by dividing the dorsal by the ventral antero-ppsterior diame-
ter (thickness), and the general index may be calculated from the five
results by obtaining the mean, or average, of all five.

40. Special lumbar index

dorsal vert. diam. of vert. I, II, III, etc. X 100
ventral vert. diam. of same vertebra

The special index of a given vertebra in a number of cases may be
averaged as is done in any other such data, and the results compared as
racial criteria. Thus Turner presents the following table.

12 Euro-
peans

5 Austra-
lians

2 Andama-
nese

3 Negroes

3 Hawaiians

1st lumb. vert

106 8

114 4

111 3

108 8

114 6

2d lumb. vert

101.5

112.3

105.6

104.2

108

3d lumb. vert

95.4

108.0

102.0

100.0

108.2

4th lumb. vert. . .'

93.0

103.7

91.8

93.0

101.5

5th lumb. vert

83 6

91.4

84.2

89.0

87.7

Mean general lumbar index

96.0

106.0
(nearly)

99.0
(nearly)

99.0

104.0

From this table there will be noted the marked change of shape of the
vertebral bodies from the first to the fifth. In the first and second the

*Gk. /&<ixts, a spine; Kvpr6s, arched, convex; 6p66s, straight; KofXos, hollow. Turn-
er's spelling retained the Greek form, kurtorhachic, coitorhachic, as also in his com-
pounds with -kerkic (cercic) below, but the spelling given here is more in accordance
with modern usage.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

bodies are wedge-shaped, with the lesser thickness (the edge) pointing
backwards (dorsally) ; the third is about .square, i.e., the anterior and
posterior surfaces are nearly parallel, and in the negro absolutely so;
while in the fourth and fifth the wedge is turned around, with the edge
pointing forwards (ventrally). Cunningham,* who investigated a
much larger number of European skeletons than did Turner (76) , found
the index for the first lumbar vertebra to be 106.1, and for the fifth 81.6,
with the general index, 95.8, practically the same as the latter author.
For the negro he obtained a general index of 105.4, and for the Andama-
nese 104.8, both considerably larger than the results of Turner.

Studies of the vertebral column, calculated to bring out the wedge-
shaped character of the vertebral bodies, and incidentally the curves,
have been undertaken by Hasebe,f who has carried out the bulk of his
work upon Japanese material, but has compared his results with the
studies of others upon other races. Among his tables, which are both
numerous and extensive, he includes such measures as the ventral and
dorsal vertical measures of the vertebral bodies, the transverse and
sagittal diameters of the same, with special studies of certain important
vertebrae, as the atlas, the epistropheus, and the sacrum.

The volumetric measures of the vertebral column, both as a whole,
and in its separate groups, compared in various ways, have been employed
by Wetzel, J in a study of the vertebral column of the native Australians.
These volumes are obtained by means of water replacement. He finds
the average volume, both of entire vertebral columns, and of separate
vertebrae, in 8 Australians, 6 Europeans, and2 negroes, besides the same
data for the vertebral column of an adult orang-utan, for comparison.
The average volume of the entire column, including the sacrum, together
with the maximum and minimum among the individual studies was
found as follows :

VOLUME OF THE ENTIRE VERTEBRAL COLTJMN, INCLUDING THE SACRUM

(in cubic centimeters)

Name of race

Average
volume

Maximum

Minimum

Australians (8) ....

521

687

450

Europeans (6) . .

774

916

631

Negroes (2)

873

890

857

Orang-utan (1)

546

The average volume of single vertebrae is taken by measuring all of
one group together and dividing by the number of the group; thus, the

* The Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes; Dublin, 1886.

t Die Wirbelsaule der Japaner. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol. Bd.
XV, 1912, pp. 259-380.

t Die Wirbelsaule der Australier. Zeitschr. fur Morphol. und Anthropol., Bd.
XII, 1909, pp. 313-340.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

volume of the cervical vertebrae of a given skeleton is divided by 7, that
of the thoracic vertebras by 12, and of the lumbar vertebrae by 5. This
average number for a single vertebra of a given group is then averaged for
all the individuals of a given race, with the following results :

TABLE OF THE AVERAGE VOLUMES OF SINGLE VERTEBRA
(in cubic centimeters)

Name of race

Average of a
cervical
vertebra

Average of a
thoracic
vertebra

Average of a
lumbar
vertebra

All together,
one of each

Australians (8)

7 4

16 1

33 7

57 2

Europeans (6) .

10 4

25.1

45 6

81 1

Negroes (2)

13 2

27.9

54.0

95 1

Orang-utan (1)

11.5

18.1

34.7

64 3

The volume of the four separate groups (including the sacrum) as
compared with the total volume of the entire column, is of interest.
Here the total volume is taken as 1000, and the components are given
as proportionate parts of it. In other words this table is constructed
by means of the following Volumetric group index, No. 3. Total volume
of vert, column X 100 Volumes of each group.

TABLE OF PROPORTIONATE VOLUMES OF THE GROUPS OF VERTEBRA
(the total volume = 1000)

Cervical

Thoracic

Lumbar

Sacrum

Australian (male) (4)
Australian (female) (4)

103
96

378
361

319
315

200
233

European (male) (5)

397

295

213

European (female) (1) ....

339

299

278

Negro (male) (2)

106

385

309

201

In the above table the separation of the sexes shows certain interesting
sexual differences, notably that of the volume of the sacrum, which is
the greater in the female. This peculiarity is better brought out in the
next table, which compares the volume of the sacrum with that of all the
rest of the column, the total volume being considered as 1000, as in the
other case.

TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE VOLUME OF SACRUM AS COMPARED WITH THE PRE-

SACRAL VERTEBRAL COLUMN
(The first figure is that of the sacrum)

Australian (male) 200 : 800

Australian (female) 235 : 772

European (male) 213 : 787

European (female) 278 : 723

Negro (male) 201 : 800

80 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Very little has as yet been done with the anthropometry of the ribs and
sternum. The curvature of the ribs, connected as it is with the capacity
of the chest and the relative lung capacity, is in part an individual char-
acter, but is undoubtedly in part also racial. This character has been
studied thus far mainly in the living by means of thoracic measurements.
A comparison of the ribs and sternum of such prehistoric human species
as Homo neandertalensis, with the same parts of modern man should
show us along what lines to look for racial differences in the bones them-
selves, and in this connection it is interesting to note that the ribs of
this early species were less rounded in curvature than in modern man,
indicating a cylindrical, rather than a flat, chest. This man was rather
short in stature (1550-1650 mm.), with an enormously large head set
well forward upon a short, massive neck. The thorax was cylindrical
and very capacious, and the intercostal muscles were extremely well-
developed. The ribs were themselves rather cylindrical than flat, giving
a distinct triangular cross-section.*

III. SHOULDER-GIRDLE

Scapula

I. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

1 . Maximum length (morphologically the breadth f) [CD] ; the distance
between the most projecting points of the anterior (superior) and poste-
rior (inferior) angles.

2. Maximum breadth (morphologically the lengthf) [BK]; from the
middle of the lower border of the articular surface of the glenoid fossa to
the terminus of the spinal axis [No. 3] upon the vertebral border.

3. Spinal axis [BA]; from the center of the glenoid fossa to the point
where the prolonged lower edge of the spine intersects the vertebral
border.

4. Length of the spine [BE]; from the last described point [B], to the
most distant point upon the acromion process.

5. Length of the supra-spinous line [BC]; from the point [B] to the
anterior angle.

*BOULE: L'homme fossile de la Chapelleaux-Saints; Annales de Paleontologie, T.
VI, 1911; pp. 113-115.

SCHWALBE, G. : Kritische Besprechung von Boule's Werk; L'homme fossile, etc.,
mit eigenen Untersuchungen. Zeitschr. ftir Morphol. und Anthropol., Bd. XVI,
1914; p. 565+.

t The scapula of man, and to a lesser degree that of the other Primates, is spread
out antero-posteriorly far in excess of that of most other mammals, mainly because
of the excessive lengthening in this direction of the infra-spinous portion of the blade.
If comparison be made with other scapulae, e.g., cat, horse, rat, which show the more
usual shape it is at once apparent that the length runs in the same direction as the
spine, and the breadth at right angles to it, across both fossae.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

6. Length of the infra-spinous line [BD]; from the point [B] to the pos-
terior angle.

7. Antero-posterior (vertical) diameter of the glenoid fossa; taken across
the lip, parallel to the axis of the body.

FIG. 29. Right scapula, showing measurements and angles.
Spinal axis angle, AHD (1)
Infraspinous angle, ABD (2)
Vertebral border angle ABG (3)
Axillo-spinal angle, BKD (4)

8. Dorso-ventral (transverse) diameter of the glenoid fossa; measured in
the same way, but at right angles to the preceding.

9. Length of axillary border [KD]; distance between the middle of the
lower border of the glenoid fossa, and the posterior angle.

1. Scapular index [2 : 1]

II. INDICES

maximum breadth X 100

2. Supra-spinous index [5:1]

3. Infra-spinous index [6:1]

maximum length
length; supra-spinous line X 100

maximum length
length; infra-spinous line X 100

4. Axillary index [9:1]

5. Fossorial index [5 : 6]

maximum length
axillary length X 100

maximum length
length; supra-spinous line X 100

length; infra-spinous line

~ 7 -j . j ro >n transverse diameter, clenoid fossa X 100

6. Glenoid index [8 : 7] ,. , ,. . rr-=

vertical diameter, glenoid fossa

III. ANGLES

1. Spinal axis angle [AHD]; made by the intersection of the spinal
axis with the maximum length line.

2. Infra-spinous angle [ABD]; made by the intersection of the infra-
spinous line (prolonged) and the spinal axis.

3. Vertebral border angle [ABG]; the angle between a line drawn tan-
gent to the vertebral border and the spinal axis.

4. Axillo-spinal angle [BKD]; the angle made by the line of the axil-
lary border length and the line of maximum breadth, meeting at the
point [K] in the diagram.

The measurement of all of these angles can be best effected by the use
of knitting needles, fastened directly upon the bone by wax or plastillna,
and thus defining the lines. The angles are read off by a transparent
protractor.

IV. TABLE OP SCAPULAR MEASUREMENTS*

Character

Maori (1)

Europ.
(200)

French
(73)

Austral.
(6)

Senoi

Egyptian

Max. length

145.0
95.0
59.0
109.0
65.5

54.1

142.0
95.0
55.0
106.0
66.9

51.9

155.0
101.4

113.6
62.5

168.0
105.9

124.3

154.5
97.3

113.6
63.0
64.9

152.0
97.0

103.0

72.5

137
87

98.0
110.0
65.9

Max. breadth ....
Supra-spin

Infra-spin

Scap. index

Foss. index

* The above results are those of various authors, as found in MOLLISON (1908) and
MARTIN (1914. pp. 977-978). The Europeans were studied by FLOWER and GARSON
(1880), the French by LrvoN (1879), and the Australians by TURNER (1886,. As
elsewhere, the numbers of individuals studied in each case are given in parenthesis
following the name of the race.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES . 83
Clavicle

I. MEASUREMENTS

1. Maximum length;* taken with the osteometric board.

2. Girth; taken at the middle of the shaft.

3. The two angles of curvature; These are taken upon the dioptograph
tracing of the contour of the bone from above, oriented as this is done by
having the two borders of the acromial third in the same plane, hori-
zontally placed.

The middle axis of the bone is traced, following the curves, and
beginning and ending in the center of the two ends; the points where
the line attains the farthest point anteriorly and posteriorly are then

FIG. 30. Right clavicle, from above, showing measurements. This figure is based
upon several by Parsons, and represents the average measurements obtained from
70 English males.

marked, and lines drawn, connecting these with the middle of the two
ends and with each other. These form a medial angle, projecting forward
and a lateral, projecting backward. These can be measured with a
protractor. Added together they form the "index of curvature. " These
may be directly compared.

4. Breadths, taken from the dioptograph tracing; Parsons uses five
of these; at the two ends, at the inner angle, at the narrowest place, and
at the conoid tubercle.

* PARSONS: Engl. Journ. Anat., 1917, found the average length of English clavicles,
taken from the lower and lower middle classes to be:

males, right (70) 151 mm.

males, left (83) 153

females, right (65) 138

females, left (64) 138

The above were separate clavicles, taken at random; when the two clavicles of the
same individual are taken in the cadaver, and compared with the total shoulder-
vridth (not bi-acromial) PARSONS found, in 50 male bodies, the length of the right
clavicle to average .382 of the shoulder-width, and that of the left, .387. In 49 female
bodies the respective figures were .380 and .383, thus showing more definitely the
greater length of the left clavicles in both sexes.

84 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

II. INDICES

1. Caliber index (2 : 1] Diddle circumference of shaft X '100

maximum length

2. Claiicle-humeral index [1 : 1 of humerus]

maximum length of clavicle X 100
maximum length of humerus

ARM AND HAND
Humerus

I. MEASUREMENTS

1. Greatest maximum length [AB, Fig. 31]; taken with the osteometric
board.

2. Breadth of the proximal epiphysis [AC] ; taken from head to greater
tuberosity, so as to get the greatest measurement. Use the slide compass
of the rod compass.

3. Breadth of the distal epiphysis [BE]; measured between the two
condyles, to get the greatest measurement. On about the same plane
as No. 2.

4. Circumference of the diaphysis at the upper third; this is preferred
to that taken in the middle of the shaft, as it avoids the deltoid eminence.

5. Least circumference of the diaphysis; this is found at about the
second third, distal to the deltoid eminence, and just proximal to
the beginning of the supra-condyloid ridges. It is usually about a
centimeter distal to the nutrient foramen.

6. Proximo-distal (longitudinal) diameter of the head; taken from a
point in the edge of the articular surface of the bone across to the opposite
side, taken in a plane parallel to the long axis of the bone. SC.

7. Dorso-ventral (transverse} diameter of the head; taken in the same
way, but at right angles to the previous one, and at right angles to the
long axis of the bone.

8. Circumference of the head; measured around the margin of the
articular surface, with the tape.

II. INDICES

least circumference of diaphysis X 100

1. Caliber index [5 : 1] -. , f^

maximum length

, . -. transverse diam. of head X 100

2. Index of the head [7: 6] rr r . i p

longitudinal diam. ol head

III. ANGLES

1. Angle of torsion; the angle formed by the line connecting the
cener fo the head and the greater tuberosity, when projected upon the

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 85

PIG. 31. 'Right humerus, showing the cubital angle.

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

line connecting the two condyles; i.e., the axis of the head and the axis
of the condoles (Fig. 32). This is taken by means of the parallelograph.
2. Cubital angle; the angle formed by the axis of the shaft with that
of the trochlea. This is taken by standing the bone upon the table,
the trochlear surface in contact with it. The angle to be measured is
that of the bone with the table. This angle, taken in connection with
that formed by the olecranon and shaft of the ulna, (joint axis angle,

Swiss

143.9

FIG. 32. Contours of the two ends of a humerus superposed upon each other in bones
from two different races, to show amount and angle of torsion. (After Martin.)

see below, under Ulna), determines the degree of obliquity of the fore arm
upon the upper arm in life, the "elbow angle" which is usually so much
more pronounced in females than in males as to constitute almost a
secondary sex character.*

The anthropological study of the humerus is as yet too new either to
estimate the relative value of the data given, or to formulate definite
results from them. A few suggestions may be permitted, based upon the

* MARTIN found the average value of the cubital angle in Fuegian humeri to be
83, and that of the Swiss, 77. Other authors have established an average of 70
for the white race. For the discussion of the elbow angle, see below, under Ulna.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 87

humerus of Homo neandertalensis, and other extinct forms, as well as
from the study of this bone in other Primates, suggestions which show
the tendencies i.e., the lines along which the human specialization is
moving. Thus, contrary to expectation, the humerus in the modern
type is distinctly longer than in the Neandertal species, that of the
right humerus of the latter being but 312 mm. long, although the cranium
was very large. It is, however, extremely robust, although, from the
few fragments extant, the hand was rather small and delicate. The
shape of the head of the humerus is peculiar, being broader than long,
that is, measurement No. 7 exceeds that of No. 6, and the Index (No. 2)
is more than 100, a condition that does not exist in modern man, so far
as is known. The direction taken by the head, as shown by the angle
of torsion, is more towards the back than in the European race, resembling
that of Australians and other lower races. The value of the angle of
torsion in various other mammals, and in several human races, is as
follows:*.

Carnivora 85. 1

Hvlobates 68.0

Simia 59.75

Pan 52.0

Australians 45 . 5

Gorilla 39.0

Negroes, Fuegians, Polynesians 36.0

*Neandertal (right) 35.0

Chinese. 33 . 13

Neolithic French 27 . 68

Ancient Parisians 24 . 6

Swiss 19.0

Modern French 16.0

Among the characters classed as variations two have especially at-
tracted the attention of ethnologists; the perforation of the olecranal
fossa, and the supra-condyloid notch. The first is the result of unusually
deep coronoid and olecranal fossae, opposite each other upon the two
sides of the bone, immediately over the trochlea. This occurs in some
45% of Western Europeans, but is more common in African negroes
(21.7 %), and in Polynesians (34.3 %), and is still more frequent in,
American Indians (36.2 %). It seems to have been more common still
in prehistoric peoples.

The second character is clearly a remnant of the supra-cond3^1oid
foramen of lower mammals, and, when well-developed, as occasionally

* In taking the angle of torsion some authors use one of the two complementary
angles, and some the other. It is thus often necessary to reduce all to a common
form by subtracting from 180. This was done in this table, which is taken from
data given by BROCA, MARTIN, and DUCKWORTH.

88 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

in modern man, consists of a hook-like process upon the internal condylar
ridge projecting distally, and converted into a complete foramen in the
recent state by a ligament. It transmits the Median nerve, and fre-
quently also the Brachial artery, or a branch arising from it, as in the
case of the complete foramen of certain other mammals. In the humeri
of the Spy and Neandertal skeletons there appears a groove (Sulcus
supracondyloidsus, Klaatsch), evidently the vestige of the foramen in a
slightly different form.

Ulna

The treatment of this and the following bone (Radius) is based largely
upon the excellent model set by the paper of Fischer,* which differs in its
arrangement from the more usual one. Instead of listing first the meas-
urements, then the indices, and then the angles, he treats of a side, aspect,
or end, with all its data together, a method which is here followed. The
numbers thus follow consecutively, without placing angles, indices, etc.,
in separately numbered lists.

I. LENGTHS AND CALIBER

1. Maximum length; measured either upon the osteometric board,
or by means of calipers. This measurement includes, naturally the ex-
treme points of the olecranon and the styloid process, which, in the case
of measurement by the calipers, become the points upon which the feet
of the instrument rest, the termini of the maximum length line.

The longest ulna measured by Turner, that of a male Hindu, was 305
mm.; Fischer's longest, out of several hundred, was 296. In the Sikh,
a very large race, Turner's maximum was 297, in the Malay 265, and in
the Chinese 247. In negroes the maximum ulna was 301. The females of
all these show considerably lower maximum figures, as would be expected.

2. Physiological length; measured with the calipers, the two measuring
points, or termini, being (1) the deepest point in the longitudinal ridge
running across the floor of the greater sigmoid notch, and (2) the deepest
point of the distal surface of the "head," not taking the groove between
it and the styloid process.

Although the maximum length line has long been used as the main, or
the only, length measurement, there are many reasons for preferring the
"physiological" or effective length; more in fact than in the radius, where
it is also recommended. This length is that included between the articu-
lar surfaces, and is to be preferred, not only because it avoids the neces-
sity of using the points of the olecranon and styloid processes, which are
often incompletley preserved, but also because it corresponds to the effec-
tive working length of the forearm, as measured upon the volar side.

* FISCHER, EUGEN: Die Variationen an Radius und Ulna des Menschen. Zeitschr.
fur Morphol. und Anthropol. Bd. IX. 1906, pp. 147-247. 5 Pis., 16 text-figures,
and 6 tables. (This paper is fundamental for the anthropological study of Ulna and
Radius.)

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 89

The following averages of this measure are given by Fischer:

Prehistoric Teutons (Reihengraber) 239. 7*

Negroes (6) 239.5

Africans in general (12) 234 . 6

Australians (6) 233.7

Melanesians (17;* 230. 5

Germans (Baden) (25) 227.2

Ainu (60) f 212.5

Japanese (40) f 200.4

Compared with these figures the species H. neandertalensis shows
nothing distinctive, but comes quite within the limits of recent man.
The Neandertal ulna (right) measures 231 mm., physiological length,
and those of Spy are estimated by Fischer at about the same figure
(Spy I, Right; 233; Spy II, Left, 231). The orang, with its phenome-
nally long arm, shows a physiological length of 340.5. In the gorilla it is
303.21 in the chimpanzee 269, and in the gibbon, the smallest of the
Simiidse in body, it reaches 282.2, a larger actual measurement than
in any normal man.

3. Least circumference of the diaphysis; located a little above the dis-
tal epiphysis, where the shaft, through the reduction of the muscular
ridges and crests, becomes nearly cylindrical. Measured with the tape.

_ N least circumference (3) X 100

4. Caliber index; (3:2)=- r ^r = n \v. /o\

physiological length (2)

By this index is expressed the relative delicacy or robustness of the
bone as a whole, the larger the number the stouter the bone. The fol-
lowing table expresses in figures facts that have been frequently stated
from observation; among others that the ulna of primitive people is more
slender than that of the culture races. The extreme slenderness of this
bone in the gibbon and oran'g is also manifest.

Caliber Indices of the Ulna

Simian apes

Gibbon (4) 6.0

Orang (8) 10.0

Gorilla (5) 13.4

Chimpanzee (2) 14 . 3

Primitive human races

Australians (6) 12.7

Melanesians (13) 13.7

Negritoes (6) 14.6

Culture races

South Germans, Baden (25) 16.8

* The prehistoric Teutons, measured by LEHMANN-NITSCHE, and the last two,
measured by KOGANEI, may not correspond exactly in the mode of measurement with
the rest,' which were calculated by FISCHER.

t In these the two sexes were used indiscriminately, in the others the bones
were those of males alone as far as could be determined.

90 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

II. STUDY OP LATERAL PROJECTION; CURVATURE OF THE SHAFT

A convenient plane, to be used in projections and in general compari-
son, is one established by Fischer, and conveniently called the sagittal,
or dorso-volar, although in the natural position of the forearm, with the
palm up wards and the radius and ulna parallel, it is set some what obliquely
and is not perpendicular to the "volar plane," used in the study of the
radius.

This plane is determined by the curved ridge that runs longitudinally
across the greater sigmoid notch, from the volar point of the olecranon
to the projecting point in the lip of the coronoid process. The plane of
this curve also passes approximately through the styloid process at the
distal end, and the bone may thus be conveniently adjusted for projection
by placing both the curved line and the styloid process at equal distances
from the plane of the paper. Using this plane the bone may be inspected
from the two opposite aspects, the one displaying the lesser sigmoid notch
the other not. For the outline of the entire bone either aspect is, of
course, equally serviceable, but as the features of the lesser notch are
used in some of the measurements, the side that shows it is to be preferred.

5. Curvature index. A comparison of several bones, or of their pro-
jections, in the plane just denned, shows a striking difference in the shape
of the bone as a whole, due mainly to a variation in the amount of curva-
ture in the shaft. This may be measured upon a projection from the
lesser sigmoid aspect by the method indicated in Figure 33. A median
longitudinal line is first drawn through the proximal end of the bone to
serve as an axis, and this crossed by a perpendicular tangent to the lower
(distal) border of the articular surface of the lesser sigmoid notch. This
locates the point a, where this cross line intersects the outer marginal line.
A line is now dropped from the point a towards the distal end of the bone,
tangent to the slight inward curve that is always found in the outline just
above the distal epiphysis. The exact point of tangency is the point b,
and the line ab is the chord of the outer outline, the curve to be measured.
When this has been done the amount of curvature is ascertained by
measuring the longest perpendicular to the chord that can be erected within
the limits of the curve, and this length is expressed in terms of the entire

-,,,,, . f T longest perpendicular X 100.

chord by means of the following formula; - , -r ~ r , . E,

length of chord AE

The result is the curvature index, the greater curve giving the larger
number.

6 and 1. Height of olecranal cap, and olecranal cap index. A second
measurement obtainable from this lateral projection is that of the height
of the olecranal cap (No. 6), the amount of projection of the olecranon
process above the upper lip of the greater sigmoid notch. The wide
differences that are possible in this respect are seen at once by comparing
any human ulna, in which the projection is slight, with the ulna of almost

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 91

FIG. 33. Outlines of five ulnas, human and anthropoid, showing varying degrees of
shaft-curvature. Further explanation in the text. After Fischer.)

I. South German (Baden)
II. Australian

III. New Mecklenburg (female)

IV. Chimpanzee
V. Gibbon

92 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

any quadruped, such as a cat or a rabbit. In various human ulnae
there are considerable differences, the measurement of which may be
made by first establishing upon the projection the longitudinal axis of
the proximal end of the bone, and crossing this with a perpendicular,
tangent to the upper lip of the greater sigmoid notch. The height of the
olecranon above this is the measurement sought (n in Fig. 33) .

The olecranal cap index (No. 7) may be obtained by comparing this
measure with that of the physiological length of the entire bone; as
follows:

j fa n\ height of olecranal cap (6) X 100

7. Olecranal cap index (6:2) = - r =-^ = ri .v /o\

physiological length (2)

In modern men this index varies individually between 0.6 and 3.7,
the larger figures occurring in the more primitive human races, although
with some notable exceptions. In H. neandertalensis the cap is high, but
in the Simian apes it is low. On the other hand the lower monkeys in
general have a much higher cap than is found in any human races, some
of them approaching the quadrupeds in this particular. The table of
olecranal cap indices follows:

H. papiens:

South Sea islanders (6) 1.2

Melanesians (13) 1.7

South Germans, Baden (25) 1.7

Australians (6) 1.8

Africans (8) 1.9

Negritoes (6; 2.0

Fuegians 2.5

H. neandertalensis:

Neandertal 4.6

Spy II; right 4.0

Spy 11; left 3.8

Simian apes:

Gorilla (4) 0.8

Gibbon (4) 1.0

Orang (9; 1.1

Chimpanzee (2) 1.4

Lower apes (23), miscellaneous 6.4

Lemurs 8.3

8. Olecrano-coronoid angle. This character, also brought out by the
lateral projection, is the position or tilt of the greater sigmoid notch,
taken as a whole, as compared with the long axis of the bone. This can
be readily expressed by the value of the angle formed between the chord
ab, previously defined, and the prolongation of the line drawn across
the points of the upper and lower lips of the notch. If, as is sometimes
the case, the two lines are parallel, the angle is naturally O, and the notch
faces straight outwards; when, however, the notch has an upward tilt, the
two lines intersect above and form an angle which becomes greater the

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 93

more the opening of the notch is elevated (Fig. 33, I and II). Should
this look downwards the intersection would be below and the angle would
be given a minus value.

On an average, in modern races, this angle has a value of 15-20;
but an angle of 32 has been recorded. The value of this angle which,
from the two points involved, is termed the olecrano-coronoid, is directly
concerned in the question of the angle formed at the elbow during the
extension of the arm, since a complete extension to 180 is more easily
possible, other things being equal, when the olecrano-coronoid angle is
large, that is, when the notch is directed upwards. This possibility of
complete extension is, however, dependent upon other factors also, for
example, the depth of the olecranon fossa, or a slight forward cant of the
olecranon process as a whole ; so that an unusually deep fossa, or perhaps
a perforation of the bone (supra-trochlear foramen), may compensate
for a moderately low position of the greater sigmoid notch, and still
render a complete extension possible. When, however, the angle is very
small, and the notch has little or no upward direction, a complete exten-
sion, even with these compensations, is quite impossible. This is the
condition in Homo neandertalensis so far as known; the olecrano-coronoid
angle is low, and the extension of the arm is incomplete, the bones, when
articulated, forming an angle of 160-165 when fully extended, so that, in
the flesh, allowing for the space taken up by the soft parts, the amount of
extension must have been even less.

In the lower monkeys the olecrano-coronoid angle is very low, in some
cases even negative (notch pointed downwards) and it would seem that
here also a complete extension is impossible. Many human races, on
the other hand, both high and low, such as the Central Europeans and
the Australians, possess a high angle, and presumably have the power
of complete extension. Definite statements on this point cannot be
made from lack of sufficient data, and more detailed study, not only upon
the bones but more especially upon the living, including all races and both
sexes, are a pressing need.

III. STUDY OF THE VOLAR PROJECTION

This projection is that of the bone when rotated about its longitudinal
axis exactly 90 from its former position, showing the curved longitudinal
ridge that crosses the greater sigmoid notch as a straight line. As the
former position was not strictly lateral, though called so for convenience,
so this position is not quite volar, but in the normal position of an ex-
tended arm is set at nearly 45 to the "volar plane" of the radius, de-
scribed in the next section. Like the aspect previously used, however,
it best shows certain essential peculiarities and has the advantage of being
consistent with it.

From this aspect the entire shaft is seen to possess a very slight S-
curve, but it is difficult to measure, and thus far has yielded no important

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

result. Of much greater significance is the angle expressing the relation
of the plane of motion of the elbow joint to the longitudinal axis of the
shaft, which can be ascertained with some accuracy from such a pro-
jection, the joint axis angle.

9. Joint-axis angle. To determine this first draw upon a given volar
projection the line AE (Fig. 34), coincident with the curved longitudinal

FIG. 34. Ulna of I, White (So. German), and II, Negro, to compare the joint-axis angle

in the two. (After Fischer) .

ridge of the greater sigmoid notch, which is used in determining the lateral
plane. This marks the plane along which the forearm moves in flexion
and extension. Next draw a perpendicular across this at any convenient
place with the limits of the notch, as CD, and this line, which is perpen-
dicular to the plane of rotation, must necessarily be parallel to the axis

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

of the joint. If, now, the axis of the shaft be drawn, EF, intersecting
the line CD at E, the angle formed, CEF, is that between the joint axis
and that of the ulna, or of the forearm, the joint axis angle.

10. Lateral divergence angle. This angle, which is that made between
ulna and humerus during extension, might equally well be placed under
either bone, since it involves both to an equal degree Under the more
common name of the "Elbow angle" its more extreme case, in which the
two parts, upper and lower arm are set obliquely to each other in the
living, this angle has been frequently noted and extensively commented
upon. The true relation of these two parts is naturally a matter of the
bones concerned, and is due to the two angles, cubital (Humerus III, 2)

FIG. 35. Lateral divergence angle of elbow joint. (After Fisher.)

I South German (Baden)
II Negro

III Australian

IV Australian

and joint-axis (Ulna, 9), which may vary quite independently of each
other The four possibilities are presented in Fig. 35, taken from Fischer.
In the first case both cubital and joint axis angle are considerably less
than 90, i.e., the axes are both obliquely set, the result being a pro-
nounced divergence of the forearm from the line of the humerus; in
II, where the cubital angle is oblique, and the joint axis nearly straight
(the angle even more than 90), and in II, where the reverse is true, and
the cubital angle is straight (88), there is a moderate amount of lateral
divergence. In IV each angle is practically a right angle, one compen-
sating exactly with the other, (88 and 92), and the result is a perfectly

96 LABOEATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

straight arm. It is thus seen that the lateral divergence angle (elbow
angle of some authors) is always the sum of the two angles, cubital
angle of the humerus and joint-axis angle of the ulna. That of 1 equals
154; of II, 175; of III, 168, and of IV, 180.*

IV. PROPORTIONS OF THE OLECRANON

Certain of these, relative to the olecranal cap (Nos. 6 and 7) have
already received treatment. There remain now the more usual dimen-
sions of length, breadth, and thickness (or depth), with the customary
indices to express the relations between them. These are here tabulated,
although their value or significance have not yet been proven.

11. Maximum breadth of olecranon; measured with the sliding com-
pass at right angles to the olecrano-coronoid ridge used to define the
sagittal plane.

12. Height of olecranon; measured from the transverse line, groove, or
roughness, which runs partly across the concavity of the notch from
the outer side, separating the articular surfaces of olecranon and coronoid
process, up to the highest point of the olecranon, i.e. the top of the olec-
ranal cap.

13. Thickness (or depth) of olecranon; measured with the sliding
compass from volar to dorsal aspects. This is taken across the lip above
the notch.

14. Thickness-breadth index of olecranon (13 : 11)

_ thickness of olecranon X 100
breadth of olecranon

15. Height-breadth index of olecranon (12 : 11)

height of olecranon X 100

These last two indices have yielded the following values:
H. sapiens:

Thickness-breadth (14)

Height-breadth (15)

Negroes (11; 92 83

Weddas (3, 96 85

South Germans, Baden (25) 98 80

Australians (6) 98 80

- Melanesians (18) 104 88

Negritoes (6) '. 107 90

Fuegians (6) 107 85

H. primigenius :

Neandertal 97 86

Spyl 92 83

Spy II 100 86

* For special studies of the elbow angle see NAGEL: Untersuchungen uber den
Armwinkel des Menschen. Zeitschr. Morphol. u. Anthropol., Bd. 10, 1906-07, and
MALL: On the angle of the elbow, Amer. Journ. Anat., Vol. 4, 1905, pp. 391-404.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 97

Simian apes:

Gibbon (4) 88 75

Orang (11) 95 81

Gorilla (5) 101 77

Chimpanzee (2) 120 73

Lower apes 165 153.9

Lemurs 120 138

V. SHAPE OF THE SHAFT

Through the formation of longitudinal ridges the shaft of the ulna
becomes more or less definitely a three sided prism, one edge of which, the
one turned towards the radius, forms a sharp crest, often considerably
developed. Aside from these there are many minor elevations and slight
depressions, which have their meaning for the anatomist in relation to the
attachment of muscles, but in which thus far no racial characters have
been established, and it is more probable that the variations are mainly
those of age, sex, and degree of muscular development.

Two methods have been devised, however, for determining the shape of
the shaft at different levels, the one mechanical, the other mathematical.
The first consists of surrounding the shaft at a given level with a band of
wax, which, when removed, gives the exact form of the part enclosed.
For this a mixture of wax and paraffin, 4 : 1, is warmed to the degree
necessary to make it plastic, worked a little between the fingers, and then
pressed around the region selected in the form of a band. The upper
and lower margins of this band are then made straight by means of a
knife, and the whole is then plunged into cold water to harden. When
sufficiently hard the ring is cut across at two opposite points and the two
halves are removed quickly from the bone and dropped upon a table or
board without being handled. They are then placed together and fast-
ened by means of a hot spatula applied to the outer surfaces. In this way
may be obtained the outlines of any section, but the two points of greatest
interest are (1) the point of greatest crest development, and (2) the cylin-
drical region above the distal epiphysis, where the ridges fail and the cali-
ber is the minimum.

The second method is the more usual one of obtaining an index from
two diameters taken at the same level and at right angles to each other.
For this the point of greatest crest development is recommended, a point
at about the upper third of the bone. Fischer uses for the two diameters
the dorso-volar, from the ridge on the dorsal side to the flat plane on the
ventral, and the transverse, exactly at right angles to the first. His
index is formed by dividing the first by the second, or, in other words, by
considering the transverse diameter = 100. Since in most ulnae the
shape of a cross-section at this place is triangular, there are obvious
difficulties in establishing two diameters at right angles to each other,
while a measurement that includes the crest would give, not the primary
shape of the bone, but the degree of development of the crest itself, that

98 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

is, the degree of muscularity of the indivdual, and not the fundamental
shape of the shaft. Since, however, nothing better has as yet been
devised, and since these measurements have been actually used by Fischer,
they are added here.

16. Dorso-ventral diameter of shaft at the upper third; taken as suggested
above.

17. Transverse diameter of shaft at the upper third; taken as suggested
above, and exactly at right angles to the previous measurement.

~ . . dorso-ventral diameter [16] X 100

JLo. (^aLioer inaex T~* ] ri -,

transverse diameter [17]

In this index the higher figures signify an approach to the cylindrical,
a perfect cylinder being 100, while a lower index suggests a flattening
of the shaft transversely. In Fischer's results the average index for
South Germans is 76, for Fuegians, 86; and for Australians, 90. The
ulnae of Neandertal and La Naulette gave each an index of 100.

Radius

I. LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

1. Greatest maximum length; taken either with the osteometric board
or with the calipers, using as termini (1) the highest point of the margin
of the capitellum, and (2) the point of the styloid process. The maximum
length of normal radii was found by Fischer to lie between 190 and 288
mm., the shortest average being found among the Negritoes and pre-
historic pygmies from the Swiss lake-dwellings, and the longest among
African negroes. Turner's longest radius, that of a negro, measured
287 mm., his longest Sikh radius was 267, longest Malay 250, and longest
Chinese 227.

2. Physiological length; measured with the calipers from the deepest
point in the bottom of the fovea capitelli (the articular surface which
receives the capitellum of the humerus) to the deepest point in the semi-
lunar facet at the distal end. Here, as elsewhere, the physiological
length is the effective length for use, and is generally to be preferred,
since it is that of the lengths of the parts in the living, thus enabling one
to compare directly the figures in the living and in the bones. Thus
here, the distance from the bottom of the external dimple or depression,
so conspicuous an object in the dorso-lateral side of the living arm to the
point of the styloid process, accurately located in the wrist, is the same
as the physiological, rather than the anatomical, length of the bone.
From the practical standpoint, in measuring a collection of bones, the
physiological length is more generally applicable, since it does not
depend upon the integrity of the styloid process, which is so often more
or less deficient.

The greatest average physiological length of the radius thus far
recorded is that of the prehistoric Teutons from the "Reihengraber,"

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 99

for which the average of 25 separate radii is 237.3 mm.* Next follows
the negro races, with an average of 235 to 238. Among other races
are the following averages; although they rest upon too few single cases
to be final: Australians, 227.3; Melanesians, 226.4; Polynesians, 210.3;
Japanese, 200; Negritoes, 194.7. The physiological length of the
Neandertal right radius is 225.

The Simian apes, with their notably long forearm, naturally show
longer absolute figures than does even the largest man. Thus, for the
gorilla we have 302.4; for the chimpanzee, 266; for the orang-utan 334.3;
and for the gibbon, in spite of its small size, 257.8.

Several of the older anthropometrists, notably Turner, used a com-
parison of the lengths of humerus and radius to form a Radio-humeral
index, in which the length of the humerus was taken as the standard
(= 100), and the (anatomical) length of the radius compared with it.
This evidently grew out of the still earlier observation on the relative
lengths of the forearm and upper arm, which formed the starting point
of the anthropometry of the limbs, as given in the Introduction. This
may be recorded here.

max. length of radius X 100

3. Humero-radial index;

max. length of humerus

II. SHAPE AND PROPORTIONS OF SHAFT

4. Least circumference of the distal half. Most usually that circum-
ference of a long bone which is selected for comparison with the length
in estimating its proportionate caliber is the least one that can be found,
which, in the case of most bones, is a fairly definite point. In the radius,
however, there are three small places. (1) The "neck," between capitel-
lum and bicipital tuberosity, (2) a point a little below this latter, and
(3) a point just beyond the middle of the shaft, towards its distal end.
In some bones one of these, and in others another, may prove to be the
least circumference, so that, in order to be uniform, one must be desig-
nated as the one to use. The best for many reasons, and in more than
half the cases the actually smallest place, is the last named, which may
be definitely designated as the point to be measured. As in all circum-
ferences the measure is taken by means of the tape.

, , . _, least circumference (4) X 100

5. Caliber index (4:2) = - r = = = n -, , .

physiological length (2)

This index expresses the degree of slenderness of the bone as a whole,
the less the figure the more slender the bone. The following table
shows that in general the radius is especially slender in the lower Primates,
stouter in the Simian apes, and in the lower human races, and in the
culture races the stoutest of all. The orang and gibbon, however, with

* LEHMANN-NITSCHE : Untersuchungen iiber die langen Knochen der siidbayer.
Reihengraberbevolkerung. Beitr. zur Anthropol. und Urgeschichte Bayerns.
Bd. 9, Munchen, 1895. This is also excellent for the other long bones of the skeleton.

100 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

their extremely long and attenuated forearms, are an exception to the
general law, and belong in this respect with the lemurs.

Caliber indices of radius.

Gibbon (4) 8.1

Orang (10) 12.8

Lemur (5) 13.3

Melanesians (18) 15.7

Lower monkeys (20) 16.2

Burmese (8) 16.3

Negritoes (6) 17.0

Gorilla (5) 17. 1

Germans, Baden (25) 18.1

Japanese (3) 20.2

The radius of H. neandertalensis contrary to expectation, is less
slender than in the lower races of the recent species, the index being
about like that of the culture races.

For the two following data, and for some others, one or more definite
planes must be determined in which the bone may be placed and from
which it may be viewed. The most obvious of these is the volar plane,
or approximately that of the two forearm bones when the arm is stretched
out in a supine position, with the palm up, a position which brings the
radius and ulna parallel to each othei. This plane is determined by a
line and a point. The line, which is the maximum length line of the
distal articular surface, extends from the apex of the styloid process to the
middle of the concave edge of the incisura for the reception of the ulna.
The point, which is placed at the opposite end of the bone, is the center of
the depression in the capitellum, the fovea capitelli, the point used in
the determination of the physiological length.

To place a given radius so that its volar plane lies parallel to the
surface of the drawing- table, that is, in a position for drawing a volar
projection, the line and point must be placed at the same distance above
the table surface. The dorso-ventral, or sagittal plane, lies at exact right
angles to this, and is obtained by first placing the bone in the volar plane
and then rotating it about its longitudinal axis 90. With these planes
determined the two following measurements may be easily taken,
either upon the bone itself, or upon a dioptograph outline.

6. Transverse diameter of the Shaft. This should be taken at the point
of the greatest development of the crest, a point indicated not only to the
eye, but to the finger, being designated by a certain roughness of edge
that corresponds anatomically to the insertion of a specially strong band
of fibers forming a part of the interosseous ligament. The diameter
lies in the volar plane.

7. Sagittal diameter of the Shaft. This must be at the same level as
the last, but in the sagittal plane, 90 from the last.

sagittal diameter (7) X 100

8. Diaphyseal index (7:6) =

transverse diameter (6)

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 101

This index is of rather questionable value, and gives little more than an
indication of the degree of development of the interosseous crest, which
can be noted almost as well by the eye. Where the crest is large the
transverse diameter is considerably in excess of the sagittal, and the shape
of the cross section at this place is somewhat triangular; where there is
little or no crest, on the other hand, the diameters are nearly equal, and
the cross section approximates a circle. In the first case the index is
a low number (72-75) ; in the second it is higher, reaching in the Simian
apes to above 80. Here also the figures for Homo neandertalensis are
unexpected, and resemble those of recent men, evidently because of
their high crests. As in the case of the ulna the study of cross section
outlines, both at this place and at others, is of more value than this
index. Such outlines are prepared by the method described by the
use of girdles of wax (cf. ulna). If these bands be filled with plaster
of Paris little disc-shaped pieces are obtained, which represent actual
cross sections which are very convenient for comparison.

III. STUDY OF THE VOLAH PROJECTION

Several striking differences in general form are brought out by com-
paring several radii placed in the volar plane, or, what is the same thing,
by comparing a series of volar projections (Fig. 36). The two most
important points are the collo-diaphyseal angle and the amount of curva-
ture of the shaft as a whole.

9. Collo-diaphyseal angle. This is obtained in the projection by
marking upon it the axes of the two parts in question; (1) of the head and
neck, by a line connecting the center of the head, through the middle of
the shaft as far as the tuberosity, and (2) of the next ensuing portion
of the shaft. The angle thus formed may then be measured by means of
the transparent protractor. If one is dealing with an actual bone
instead of a projection, the bone must first be properly oriented, and
then the two axes marked by means of fine knitting-needles, attached
to the bone surface by wax or plastilena. The angle is then read as
before.

Where there is no bend between the two parts considered, the head-
neck axis, and that of the ensuing portion form a continuous straight
line, and the angle = 180 (Fig. 36, I). This has been found in South
Germans, although the average is 171.6. A slight bending reduces the
angle, which thus becomes less the greater the amount of bending ex-
hibited. The average angle for Australians is 165.4, and of Fuegians,
160.4, showing a progressively greater amount of bending in these races
as compared with Europeans. The Neandertal race, at 166, shows an
amount of bending comparable with that of the lower modern peoples,
and the bending in the higher apes varies from 165 to 159.

10. Curvature index. The amount of curvature of the whole shaft
may be expressed, in a way, similar to that used for the ulna, by fixing a

102

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

definite tangent line along the convex side of the curve, and constructing
upon it the longest perpendicular. To fix the line, which is tangent

FIG. 36. Outline of four right radii, human, prehistoric, and anthropoid, showing the
collo-diaphyseal angle. Further explanation in text. (After Fischer.)

I. South German (Baden).
II. New Mecklenburg.

III. Neandertal.

IV. Gorilla.

to the inner curves, and not the outer ones, a perpendicular to the first
of [the axes used in the previous measure, that of the head and neck,

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 103

which marks the point a, on the margin (Fig. 36). The point 6 is the
deepest point of reentrance of the distal curve seen on this outline, as
shown also in Fig. 36. Now, connect by a line points a and b and we
have the tangent sought. Finally, upon this as a base erect the longest
possible perpendicular to the outer line of the margin, and the proportion
of this to the entire tangent ab will indicate the amount of curvature;
, height of greatest perpen. X 100

length of tangent chord ab

This index is always a small one, varying from 2 in modern culture
races to over 6 in the strongly curved radii of the Neandertal species.
Where the curve is large, it indicates a broad interosseous space, which
in turn suggests a large suiface for the origin of the finger flexors, and an
ability to cling very tenaciously to such an object as a tree limb. In
this connection the large amount of curve in the Neandertals is significant.

TABLE OF SHAFT CURVATURE INDICES, AVERAGES

Higher apes

Gorilla 5.7

Orang-utan 5.1

Chimpanzee 4.3

Gibbon 3.6

Homo neandertalensis

Neandertal specimen 5.2

Spy 1 6.5 (approx.)

Spy II 5.2 (approx.)

Homo sapiens

South Germans 3.2

Melanesians 3.0

Burmese 2.7

Fuegians 2.5

IV. STUDY OF THE SAGITTAL PROJECTION

In turning the bone around to a position 90 from the volar plane,
it comes into the sagittal plane. Here but one important character
has thus far been observed, and that is, a second collo-diaphysial angle,
which marks the amount of backward projection of the proximal end of
the bone. This can be measured by the same methods as are used for
the collo-diaphysial angle of the volar plane (No. 9), and has been found
to average 172.5 in the people of Oceanica and 175.0 among the South
Germans, in both cases a greater bend than in the volar diaphysial angle.
This angle may prove to be important, but thus far it has not been used
very much, and need not be listed.

V. THE TORSION OF THE SHAFT

If in number of radii the maximum length line of the distal articular
surface be plainly marked, that is, the line used above in determining
the volar plane, and the bones be then placed in a parallel row upon a

104 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

table, with the bicipital tuberosity looking straight upwards, there will
be seen considerable difference in the angle which this distal line makes
with the plane of the table. In other words the angle made between this
line and one at the proximal end driven straight down through the tuber-
osity is subject to much variation. This angle is called,

11. Angle of torsion. It is measured by the parallelograph, which
places on a piece of paper placed on the table a projection of the two
lines involved, in the case of a bone held in a clamp and placed perpen-
dicularly over the table. The angle is then determined by the transparent
protractor.

Viewed in another way this measurement defines precisely the direct-
ion towards which the tuberosity points when the bone is placed in the
volar plane. If in this position the tuberosity points directly upwards,
its axis is at right angles to that of the distal articular surface line and the
angle is 90; if it point laterally, along the crest, its axis lies in the volar
plane and the angle is 0. This is about the condition in the large apes,
and in the Neandertal species of man; indeed, occasionally in an ape
(apparently always in the chimpanzee) the tuberosity axis passes the
line, that is, the volar plane, and actually faces a little backwards, making
a minus angle. In the white race in general the angle is somewhere
around 45, and consequently looks obliquely forwards and inwards.

The following results of the study of this angle have been found by
Fischer, who, however, uses the complement of the angle as described
here, considering the position in which the tuberosity looks directly up-
wards as 0, and that in which it lies in the volar plane as 90. The table
here, in order to agree with the textual explanation has been translated
into the complements of Fischer's table.

TABLE SHOWING THE ANGLE OF TORSION

Simian apes

Chimpanzee 3.5

Gibbon +0.5

Gorilla 2.0

Orang-utan 5.8

Homo neandertalensis

Neandertal specimen 2.0

Spy -. 9.0

Homo sapiens

Hawaiians 23 .

Melanesians 24 . 7

Australians 26 . 3

Negroes 26.7

Fuegians 29 . 5

Burmese 31.6

Veddah 37 .

Negritoes 37.5

South Germans (Baden) 39.8

Lake-dweller pygmies (prehist) 49 . 2

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 105

Although in averages this character is sufficiently striking, yet there
are very large individual differences. Fischer found, for instance, among
six negro radii, extremes of 39 and 85; and among twenty-five South
Germans, those of 22 and 67.

The Bones of the Hand

Of all parts of the human skeleton it is safe to say that the bones of
the hand and foot are anthropometrically the least known, and that in
spite of the fact that, as always among highly differentiated parts, it is
to be expected that they would reveal important racial differences*.
The reason for this lack is mainly to be found in the paucity of available
material. Few anthropological collections contain complete sets of
hand and foot bones. In the case of those obtained from dealers, either
attached to skeletons, or obtained separately, there is no guarantee that
all the bones of a set came from a single individual and are not "com-
posites," put together from several sources, and hence valueless for
anthropometry. Again, it is very seldom that in an excavated skeleton
these small and fragile parts are found complete, or even approximately so,
since the lightness and smallness of the most of these parts allow them
to become scattered by the action of worms and insects, and by various
other sources.

To remedy this great defect, and supply material for his own univer-
sity, Dr. Wilhelm Pfitzner of the University of Strassburg macerated and
prepared with his own hands a collection of nearly 2000 human hands
and about the same number of feet, not daring to entrust to a trade
preparator any portion of the work.f Thus this place, and this alone
thus far, possesses a priceless collection of just the material needed for
anthropometric examination of hand and foot skeletons, but even here
the collection is derived wholly from the local Alsatian population, repre-
senting but a small part of Europe. Adachi, in Tokyo, has been able
to collect valuable data concerning the Japanese, but by the study of far
fewer individuals, and when Uhlbach recently studied anthropometrically
the hands and feet of Hottentots, he was obliged to content himself
with these parts from only six individuals, and had it not been for the
painstaking excavations by his friend and teacher, Fischer, he could not
have gotten even these.

Granting, however, that material is not lacking, a distinct problem
presents itself in the fact of the multiplicity of single bones which together
make up the unit whose proportions are especially to be studied. That is,

* GEO. S. HTJNTINGTON, in a lecture delivered before the Galton Society, New
York, Dec., 1918 (unpublished).

t PFITZNER, W.: Beitrage zur Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremitatenskelets.
VIII. Die morphologischen Elements des menschl. Handskelets. Zeitschr. /. Mor-
phol und Anthropol, Bd. II. 1900, pp. 77-157 and 365-678. There are other im-
portant papers upon the subject by this author, but this, the last of the series, has an
excellent bibliography, and will serve to direct the reader to the subject in general.

106 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

except in the bones of carpus and tarsus, whose proportions, taken a
bone at a time, are frequently found significant, the points of comparison
are found in the dimensions of the palm as a whole, or the relative lengths
of entire fingers, while little or nothing is to be expected from single bones.
It is thus frequently necessary to use as data the total lengths and breadths
of several bones together, in which work the exact identity of every
phalanx is of the utmost importance.

For convenience of treatment the proportions of the hand as a whole,
or without the carpus, and those of the separate carpals, are here treated
separately, and in the order mentioned.

I. THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HAND (WITHOUT THE CARPUS)

This part consists of the 14 phalanges, together with the 5 meta-
carpals, 19 bones in all; their measurements, used either separately or
in combination, consist of lengths, breadths, and depths (dorso-ventrally) .

1 . Lengths. There are two possible lengths of phalanx or a metacarpal ;
the anatomical or maximum length, and the physiological. The first
includes all processes or ridges which may be found prolonging the articu-
lations, and this length is taken either by the anthropometric board or by
a slide compass with flat points.

The ordinary type of osteometric board is too large and heavy for all
except the metacai pals' or the basal phalanges, and for this sort of work
a much smaller size should be constructed, delicate enough to measure
accurately, at least to half-millimeters, a bone the size of a terminal
phalanx.

The physiological length, or that length which is actually effective
when the articulations are closed together as in life, is that found by
measuring the length from the center of the depression of the articular
surface at one end by that of the other. This seems, and probably is,
the best one to use in calculations requiring the length of an entire finger,
since, when put together in the natural manner, the length contributed
by each piece would be its physiological, and not its maximum length.

2. Breadths. The usual practice in ascertaining the breadth of a
given phalanx, with its difference in caliber, and hence of breadth, at
various points, is to measure the exact breadth at three places, across
the two epiphyses and the middle, and average all three by adding them
together and dividing by 3.

3. Depths (Heights). This measure, taken dorso-ventrally through a
phalanx, at right angles to the previous one, is usually taken in the same
way as the last, by the average of three measures, taken in the same
places as the last.

4. Calibers. The caliber of the separate phalanges is a set of measures
that will become important in the future without much doubt, but has
not been employed thus far, probably owing to the technical difficulty of
making a sufficiently accurate measurement to be of much discriminative

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

107

value. To use this measure more delicate methods than any we have at
present must be devised.

As an example of data which may be derived in this way we present
here the average lengths of the separate components of the middle finger
(digit III) in Europeans, Japanese, and Hottentots, after the measure-
ments of Pfitzner, Adachi, and Uhlbach respectively.*

MEASUREMENTS OF DIGIT III (PHYSIOLOGICAL LENGTHS)

bone

Europeans

Japanese

Hottentots

male

female

male

female

metacarpal

62.8
43.4
28.5
18.6
90.5
143.9

59.8
41.2
27.1
16.7
84.9
144.7

59.3
42.3
26.7
17.8
86.8
146.1

56.0
40.4
24.9
16.9
82.2
138.2

54.1
35.8
23.5
14.5
83.8
137.9

basal phalanx

middle phalanx

terminal phalanx. .

free finger

total digit (-(-metacarp.)

The following indices may be suggested, the most of which have al-
ready been employed by some of the above authors.

1 . Hand index. This indicates the shape of the entire hand, whether
long and narrow or short and broad; it is found by comparing the total
length of digit III (metacarp. + phi + 2 + 3) with the physiological
breadth of the four finger metacarpals, taken across their bases, thus:

physiological basal breadth, metacarp. II IV X 100
physiol. length, entire digit III

2. Palmar index. Like the previous one, save that the length of the
palm is compared with its breadth, thus:

physiological basal breadth, metacarp. II IV X 100
physiol. length, metacarp. Ill

3. Digital index. Intended to compare the length of the palm with
that of the free fingers, taking for the comparison the third digit, which is
the longest, thus:

physiological length, metacarp. Ill X 100
physiol. length, phal. 1 + 2 + 3 of digit III

* ADACHI, B. and Y. (MME ADACHI) : Die Handknochen der Japaner. Mitt. med.
Fakult&t Univ. Tokyo. Bd. 6, pp. 349+.

ADACHI, B.: Die Fussknochen der Japaner. Mitt. med. Fakutt&t Univ. Tokyo.
Bd. 6, pp. 307+.

PFITZNER, W.: Maassverhaltnisse des Handskelet. Morph. Arb., 1892. Bd. 1,
PP. 1+.

UHLBACH, R. : Messungen an Hand- und Fussskeleten von Hottentotten. Zeitschr.
Morphol. und Anthropol, 1914. Bd. 16, pp. 449-464.

108 LABORATORY MANUAL OP ANTHROPOMETRY

4. Thumb index (a). The relative length of the thumb is obtained by
comparing its total physiological length (metacarp. + basal ph. -f ter-
minal ph) with that of digit III, thus:

physiol. length of thumb X 100
physiol. length of digit III

5. Thumb index (6). The relative length of the thumb, as indicated
by its metacarpal, may be tested by comparing this latter bone with
the metacarpal of digit III, thus:

physiol. length of metacarpal I X 100
physiol. length of metacarpal III

6. Breadth index (separate phalanges). In this the breadth of a
single bone, taken in three places and averages, is compared with the
physiol length.

average breadth X 100
physiol. length

7. Depth index (separate phalanges). As used by Uhlbach this index
compares the average depth (height) with the average breadth.

average depth (dorsal-ventral) X 100
average breadth

This might also be compared with the length, as in the previous index.

In carrying this investigation further, as is bound to be done soon,
both here and in the case of the foot, one sees that the number of possible
indices, taken with all the possibilities of comparing sums of separate
bones, is practically endless, and the investigator should avoid an aimless
multiplication of such possible data, using new indices only for some
definite purpose, usually to put into mathematical form some difference
of proportion already detected by the eye, or suspected as the result of
measurement. The study and comparison with the hands and feet of the
larger apes should here, as elsewhere, suggest certain lines of difference
where racial criteria are to be looked for.

II. ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE CARPUS

This is the most neglected region anthropometrically of the entire
skeleton, as thus far no definite measurements of single bones have ever
been established, or definite indices used. Causes for this may be
found in the small size of the bones, in the rarity of properly determined
sets of carpal bones, and also in the fact that, although small, these bones
are complex in form and in their mutual actions, and thus require an
unusual amount of data to be of use.

It is likely that important characters may be found in the actions and
habitual positions of these parts, or of the wrist as a whole, the exposition
of which will involve more than single bones, mainly the proportions
of adjacent articular facets and the mechanics of the possible motions
between them. Again it will perhaps be sometime shown that character-

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 109

istics of these sorts which seem to be racial may be in reality industrial
or habitudinal, and have become the definite characteristics of a given
race because of definite peculiarities in their racial culture. To illustrate
this we have the claim of the two Adachis that the wrists and hands of the
Japanese race are much more supple, and have a greater mobility that
these parts in Europeans, and that this may be due to the harder forms
of toil indulged in by the latter; not that they work harder, but that they
are concerned with larger and heavier objects, such as larger tools, larger
structures involving larger parts, and so on.

In the case of the tarsus the importance of the various foot motions,
especially those of the ankle, involved, not only in walking and climbing,
but in sitting and squatting, have already called especial attention to
such bones as the calcaneus and the talus, and these parts have received
much special attention anthropometrically, and from these one may get
excellent models and many suggestions concerning the prosecution of
further study of the carpus (cf. below). As much of value has been sug-
gested in other regions by the comparison with the same parts in the
large apes, it may be suggested that here would be an unusual opportunity
for suggestive comparison by observation of the use of the hands and
wrists in these animals, and a constant comparison with the use in man.

V. THE PELVIC SKELETON, INCLUDING HIP-GIRDLE AND

SACRUM

Pelvic Girdle

Next to the skull the pelvic girdle, including the sacrum and the
ossa coxae (innominata) is of the most general interest, and the two
have many attributes in common. Like the skull, the pelvic girdle is
complex, formed by several separate elements, showing in the adult
several degrees of fusion, but never with more than a limited amount of
independent motion; both skull and pelvic girdle, too, are in many places
quite superficial, and allow numerous measurements to be made with
equal facility upon the bones of the living, with either no difference in
the result, (e.g., spinal breadth) or with only the slight difference caused
by the thickness of the integument (e.g., cristal breadth).

In another way the pelvic girdle is, in its treatment, like the skull,
and that is in its need for orientation, and in its presentation of three
dimensions, length [depth], breadth, and height. As in the skull there
is a definite plane of orientation, the aim of which is to place the part in
a natural position corresponding to that in the living. In the pelvic
girdle, unlike the skull, the plane of orientation is vertical rather than
horizontal, and the orientation is effected by placing the girdle, with
its three parts (two ossa coxae and sacrum) fastened together, in such a
position that the two anterior ventral iliac spines, and the ventral

110 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

surface of the pubic arch are in contact with a board placed vertically.
From its three contact points it is called the spino-symphysial plane,
and because it is defined by three points instead of four it is mathe-
matically more precise than is the use of the FH with the skull, which
depends upon four.

When oriented along the spino-symphysial plane the girdle possesses
a maximum height, breadth (laterally), and depth (dorso-ventrally) ,
approximately at right angles to one another, the first three measurements
given below. Oriented in this way there are the usual number of normse,
as in the skull, which might come into use in making careful drawings or
photographs for comparison, these have had little use thus far.

The anthropological study of the pelvic girdle is one of the oldest sub-
divisions of the subject, mainly, perhaps, on account of the early necessity
of making measurements of this region in the female on the part of the
obstetricians and gynaecologists. These men had thus assembled many
data when the modern science came into existence, and all or nearly all
of them found at once a place in the rubric of suggested measurements.
Thus, in Turner's Report of the bones collected by H. M. S. Challenger
(1886), the pelvic girdle, aside from the skull, to which an entrie mono-
graph was devoted, has the first and most prominent place. No less
that 35 separate data were presented, mostly measurements, with a few
indices, and angles, and in this paper the Pelvic brim index (Turner's
No. 15), originating from Zaaijer in 1866, was made much use of.*

I. MEASUREMENTS

(a) Outside measurement of the pelvic girdle as a whole.

1. Maximum pelvic height; the greatest distance between the upper
edge of the iliac crest and the lowest point of the sciatic tuber (ischiadic
tuber osity) of the same side. As the two terminal points are on the
same bone, this measurement becomes also the maximum length line
of a single os coxae (innominate bone), and as such is employed in cal-
culating certain indices, like the Innominate (3), and the Ischiadic (6).

2. Maximum pelvic breadth (cristal breadth); the greatest distance
between the two iliac crests, taken along the outer lips. This and other
large pelvic and thoracic measures are taken with the pelvimeter (Pm),
a large pair of calipers, with a reach of 600 mm.

3. Maximum pelvic depth (dorso-ventral,' or sagittal). From the
most dorsally projecting point of the sacrum, in the median line, to the

* An excellent paper to serve as a laboratory manual for the measurement of the
pelvis is that of KOGANEI and OSAWA, Das Becken, der Aino und der Japaner, Tokio,
1900, in which the authors have made an exhaustive study of the pelvis both in the
skeleton and in the living subject, employing a large number of subjects in all cases.
Earlier papers of importance, dealing with the racial diffeiences, are TURNER'S Chal-
lenger report, referred to above, and HENNIG, Das Rassenbecken, in Archiv f . Anthro-
pol., 1885.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT or THE BONES 111

most ventrally projecting point on the ventral surface of the pubic
symphysis. Pm.

4. Conjugate, externa (lumbo-pubic depth); this corresponds to the
like-named measurement on the living, and is taken between the same
two points, the point of the dorsal spine of the fifth lumbar vertebra,
and the most ventral point of the pubic symphysis. This measurement
is naturally possible only in cases in which the fifth lumbar vertebra
belonging to the same pelvis is present. It is carefully adjusted in its
proper place where it is held by plastilena, and the measurement is then
taken as directed. This measurement in -the living exceeds that of the
skeleton in the thickness of the two layers of integument and in the
subcutaneous fat.

5. Intertuberal breadth; from the center of the lower surface of one
sciatic tuber to that of the other. This should be the same value in
living or skeleton. RC. We may also make use of either :

5a. Outer intertuberal breadth; measured from the most lateral points
on the lower surface of the tubers, or

56. Inner intertuberal breadth; measured from the most medial points
on the lower surface of the tubers. In all cases it should be stated which
measurement is used.

6. Spinal breadth; the distance between the anterior ventral (anterior
superior) spines of the ilia, taken from their outer lips. The same value
as in the living. RC.

7. Acetabular breadth; across the pelvic girdle from the center of the
bottom of one acetabulum to that of the other. Pm.

(6) Measurement of the pelvic basin.

8. Upper sagittal diameter (conjugata vera); from the mid-ventral
point of the anterior lip of the first sacral vertebra (promontoiium sacri),
across the basin to the upper end of the inner surf ace of the pubic symphy-
sis, but not to the inward projecting process a little lower down.

9. Lower sagittal diameter (conjugata diagonalis) ; from the middle
point of the promontorium sacri to the apex of the pubic angle, inner
surface.

10. Upper transverse diameter; the greatest transverse diameter of the
pelvic brim (ilio-pectineal line), at right angles to 8.

11. Lower transverse diameter; measured between the apices of the
spines of the ischia. Only possible when the spines are intact.

12. Oblique diameter of the pzlvic brim; upon the ilio-pectineal line
from the ilio-sacral suture of one side to the region of the ilio-pectineal
crest of the other side. This latter point corresponds closely to the
original ilio-pubic suture, and lies above the lateral side of the obturator
foramen. There are naturally two of these oblique measures, the dextro-
sinistral and the sinistro-dextral; both should be measured, as pelves
are frequently asymmetrical.

112 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

13. Depth of the pelvic basin; from the ilio-pectineal line in the region
of the ilio-pectineal crest, to the lowest point of the sciatic tuber of the
same side. This line measures the antero-posterior* depth of the lower
pelvis, and runs along the lateral boundary of the obturator foramen.

14. Maximum length of the os coxce; this is the same as the maximum
pelvic height, used in connection with the entire pelvis [cf. No. 1 above].
The termini are the upper edge of the iliac crest and the lower surface of
the sciatic tuber, where the greatest length is sought. Cr.

15. Maximum breadth of the os coxa; the distance from the anterior
dorsal (posterior superior) iliac spine to the anterior (upper ) end of the
pubic symphysis, that is, the anterior medial apex of the pubic bone. Cr.

16. Length (height) of the ilium; from the center of the acetabulum to
the highest point of the iliac crest. SC or Cr.

17. Breadth of the ilium; across from the anterior ventral (anterior
superior) to the anterior dorsal (posterior superior) spine of the ilium.
Cr or RC.

18. Length of the os pubis; from the center of the acetabulum to the
medial edge of the pubic symphysis, the maximum measure. SC.

19. Length of the ischium; from the center of the acetabulum to the
lowest point on the surface of the sciatic tuber, the maximum measure.
SC.

20. Length of pubic symphysis; this is the length of the roughened
contact area between the two bones, measured along the medial border.
SC.

21. Vertical diameter of the acetabulum; from the middle of the notch
between the ends of the articular surfaces, measured upon the lateral
edge of the obturator foramen to the opposite edge of the acetabulum
where the diameter is the greatest. SC.

22. Transverse diameter of the acetabulum; the diameter taken at
right angles to the preceding. SC.

23. Vertical diameter of the obturator foramen; the maximum antero-
posterior diameter, taken approximately parallel to the lateral edge. SC.

24. Transverse diameter of the obturator foramen; the diameter taken at
right angles to the above. SC.

* Note that here and elsewhere the nomenclature used is the morphological
one, as related to any mammal, irrespective of his posture, whether bipedal or quad-
rupedal. Thus the terms anterior and posterior are equivalent to the older superior
and inferior while the older terms anterior and posterior are replaced by ventral and
do-sal respectively. Thus the common phrase "anterior superior spine of the crest
of the ilium" is here the anterior ventral spine; the "posterior superior" is the anterior
dorsal; the "anterior inferior" is the posterior ventral and so on. Also, in accordance
with the BNA, os innominatum becomes os coxce, and the tuberosity of the ilium the
sciatic tuber.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 113

II. INDICES

j*x i n j /-i o\ max - pelvic height X 100

1. Breadth-height index (1:2)- . , , , ,

jti. j n. j /o o\ max - pelvic depth (dorso-ventral) X 100

2. Breadth-depth index (3:2)- . . , ,

cristal breadth

3. External conjugate index (4 : 2) -7-7-

cristal Dreadtn.

This index requires the presence of the fifth lunbar vertebra, and
is therefore seldom possible. Its value consists mainly in its close corres-
pondence to the same index on the living which is here one of the most
important of the pelvic measurements. As the difference of this index
in skeleton and in the living consists mainly in the addition of two,thick-
nesses of integument to each measure, plus a slight reinforcement of
fat added to the longer of the two, the proportions are kept almost exactly
and there is probably less disparity in the index between the two con-
ditions than in the length-breadth index of the head.

4. Pdvicbrim index (Z:W) " pper .apt. diam. (conjugata vera) X 100

upper transverse diameter

As classified by Turner* (1886) this index is divided into three groups:

brachypellic below 90
mesopellic 90-95
dolichopellic 95+

Male Australians, Hottentots, and Andaman Islanders, are dolicho-
pellic; male negroes are mesopellic; and male Europeans, Hindus,
Chinese, and American Indians are platypellic. The females are gener-
ally broader than their respective males, but in the South American
Indians the males are platypellic and the females mesopellic (Turner).

breadth of ilium X 100

5. Coxal index (17 : 14)

6. Iliac index (17 : 16)

7. Pubic index (18 : 17)

max. length of os coxae
breadth of ilium X 100
length (height) of ilium

pubic length X 100
breadth of ilium

T *.'. ! j /m -i A\ length of ischmm X 100

8. Ischiadic index (19 : 14) -

max. length of os coxae

j tnA o\ transverse diam. of foramen X 100

9. Obturator index (24 : 23)

vertical diam. of foramen

* In Turner's original paper the middle group was called mesatipellic, as was then
usual. The three classes were presented also in the reverse order. These have
both been modified here to correspond to the general plan of the book. Turner also
suggested, as alternate terms with the ones favored, those with the suSix-lekanic,
instead of -pellic.
8

114 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

III. ANGLES

1. Subpubic angle; the angle formed by the two ischio-pubic rami,
along their medial borders.

As is well-known the subpubic angle is a famous sex criterion, being
small in the male and large in the female, which is true of all human races.
Still, it may have a racial significance also, although the data thus far
obtained are meager. Thus Turner, upon the basis of single individuals ,
where the sexes did not even correspond racially, are yet of some signifi-
cance.

Males Females

Australian 47 Negress 71

Chinese 76 Hawaiian 102

Malay 76 Lapplander 104

Of these three males the average is 64; of the three females 85. Martin
(1894) gives more complete data, from various sources:

Names of race Males Females

European 58 (Verneau) 76 (Martin)

75 (Verneau)
72 (Hennig)

Fuegian 60.5 (Martin) 85 (Martin)

60.7 (Garson)

59 (Sergi) 81 (Sergi)

Australians 78 (Martin)

80 (Verneau)
Andamanese 85 (Martin)

2. Angle of inclination of the ilium. This is the angle made by the
plane of the ilium with the horizon, and may best be reckoned mathe-
matically by the use of data already obtained from measurements,
viz.

cristal breadth (2)

upper transverse diameter of the pelvic brim (10)

length (height) of the ilium (16)

Nos. (2) and (10) are parallel to each other. (16) is set obliquely,
connecting their ends. If the pelvis is perfectly symmetrical, which
can by no means be taken for granted, these two parallel lines may be
charted on a paper with their median points upon a common perpendic-
ular which represents the median sagittal line. For complete accuracy
the point in each line where it crosses the median plane should be noted
in the measurement and these points, rather than the geometrical middle
point, should be placed upon the perpendicular. In this way the exact
inclination of each side can be either measured by the protractor upon
the chart, or be reckoned by trigonometry from the data furnished.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 115

3. Divergence of the two ilia from each other. This is nothing more than
the sum of the previous angles as found for each side of a given pelvis,
and is obtained by adding the two. It could also be obtained by some
simple device which would measure this angle direct.

4. Inclination angle of the pelvis as a whole. This means the in-
clination of the conjugata vera to the spino-symphysial plane, or to
the horizontal, which is the complement of the first. This angle is best
measured direct upon the bones by some form of goniometer, the two legs
resting upon the promontorium (in the median line) and the inner surface
of the upper edge of the pubic arch. If the girdle be held in an osteophore
from behind, and the vertical board used in orientation removed, the
aspect required is quite exposed, and readily accessible to either the
stationary or the clamp-on type of goniometer, by which the angle may
be easily measured. For some methods of measurement a steel needle,
fastened to the bone in such a way as to represent the conjugata vera,
is of assistance.

5. Sacral inclination angle. This angle, which belongs more properly
under the head of measurements of the sacrum, is the inclination of the
sacral base to the spino-symphysial plane . The sacral base is the anterior
surface of the body of the first sacral vertebra, which, in a complete girdle,
is so closely fastened to the ilia, and intimately associated with them, that
it serves as a base for the entire complex. This is measured by the
goniometer, any form, upon a girdle properly oriented, and held in an
osteophore applied dorsally. The measure ment is much assisted by first
applying a steel needle to the surface of the base, along the median plane,
and firmly fastened to the bone.

General considerations concerning angular measurements. In all

angular measurements, both here and elsewhere, the actual obtaining

of the values is a matter of individual ingenuity, in which there are always

many possibilities. In general there are three kinds of methods, viz.:

(a) direct measurement on the bone, by some sort of goniometer

(6) charting the essential lines on paper, and measuring the angles

thus obtained by means of a protractor

(c) getting the essential data by linear measurements, and reckon-
ing the values of the angles involved by trigonometrical
methods.

In many cases, where a single definite angle is receiving special at-
tention, and where it therefore has to be measured again and again,
the investigator has devised some special form of goniometer fitted to
this particular purpose. This is to be generally encouraged, especially
when the device is simple, but the modern tendency seems to be to
reduce, rather than multiply, the number of different instruments, and
to render those used more universal in their application. Thus, the
calipers (craniometer) of the present time, and the pelvimeter, are
practically identical in form, differing only in size, which is wholly a
matter of convenience, and both are devised for use in cases where the two

116 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

termini of a line frequently have some obstacle between them which has
to be reached around in order to obtain a straight measurement. Again
the slide-compass and the rod-compass are practically the same thing
in two sizes, also for convenience; and these with the clamp-on goni-
ometer the tape, and the anthropometer, of which the rod-compass is an
adjustment, are all that is needed both for bones and the living, for all
anthropometric uses except certain special work.

Aside from the sub-pubic angle, the difference in the value of
which in the two sexes has long been known, the ossa coxae with the
sacrum exhibit other marked sexual differences, which may usually be
relied upon in sexing a skeleton. These latter are especially practical
when applied in the field during excavation, or in the case of incomplete
skeletons, as they concern the single parts of which the girdle is composed
and consequently do not require to have the pelvis put together as is the
case with the subpubic angle.

The following are the most pronounced of the sex-determining char-
acters of the separate ossa coxae: *

1. The curve of the iliac crest. This is higher and more abrupt in the
male; or, in other words, the outline presents the arc of a much smaller
circle. It also turns down more abruptly dorsally.

2. The shape of the sacro-sciatic notch. This is narrow and deep in the
male; shallow and wide in the female.

3. The sulcus paraglenoidalis s. praeauricularis. This is a groove,
which runs over the inner surface of the ilium, just posterior to the au-
ricular surface, and parallel to its posterior border. It is very, variable
in its appearance and occurrence, being generally absent in males, and
present in females, with exceptions both ways. When well developed
it is 2 cm. or more in length, and runs over the dorsal margin of the bone,
so that it may sometimes be seen upon the outer side.f

4. The acetabulum.

(a) This is larger in males; smaller in females.
(6) In females it looks more forwards; in males more laterally.
This character can be seen only in the complete pelvis.

Sacrum %

I. MEASUREMENTS

1 . Mid-ventral curved length; the length of the median line, drawn along
the ventral surface, from the median point in the anterior or margin

* There are also certain sex differences in the sacrum, which are noted in their
proper place, below.

f For a recent discussion of the sulcus paraglenoidalis (praeauricularis) cf . DERBY,
in Journ. Anat. and Physiol, Vol. 43, 1909, pp. 266-276; see also LOHR, in Anal. Am.,
Bd. IX, 1894.

t Cf. RADLATDER Beitrage zur Anatomie des Kreuzbeines. Morphol. Jahrs.,
Bd. 38, 1908, pp. 323-447. This work was done at Zurich under Rudolf Martin,
and is a complete analysis of the sacrum, treated anthropometrically and racially,
according to the newest methods. The work may be taken as a standard and is
largely followed here.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

117

of the promo ntorium to that of the apex, without including the coccyx.
(Fig. 37, the curved lineal). TM.

2. Mid-ventral straight length (length of sacral axis); the length of
the straight line drawn between the two terminals employed in the pre-
vious measurement (the line ab in Fig. 37). SC.

3. Anterior curved breadth; the length of the line drawn perpendicular
to (1), across the ventral surface of the first sacral vertebra, between
the widest points of the margins of the lateral wings. TM.

4. Anterior straight breadth; the length of the straight line drawn
between the two termini employed in (3). SC.

5. Middle curved breadth; the

length of the line drawn perpendicular / f

to (1), across the ventral surface,

connecting the posterior angles of the

wings as termini. These terminal

points are practically at the level

of the lowest point of the auricular

surfaces, which can be used in cases

where the lower angles of the wings

are indefinite. TM.

6. Middle straight breadth; the
straight line drawn between the
termini employed in (5). SC.

7. Lower breadth; the distance be-
tween the posterior lateral angles, or,
when these are not evident, the
greatest breadth across the bone at
the level of the most posterior pair of

foramina. At this level the ventral FlQ - 37. Median curve of sacrum.

r .. , , . I-V, centra of vertebrae; a-b. mid-ventral

SUrtace OI the DOne IS SO flat that there curved length; c-d, maximum height of

is practically no difference between the curvature. (After Radiauer.)
straight and curved breadths. SC.

8. Maximum height of curvature; the greatest distance bet ween the two
lines used in (1) and (2), measured on a line perpendicular with (2);
i.e., the line cd in Fig. 37.

9. Position of the maximum height line; the relative position of the
point c in Fig. 37, the foot of the perpendicular used in the previous
measurement. The distance here measured is that from the promontor-
ium to the foot of the perpendicular, the line ac of the figure above
referred to. This figure is a profile projection of the median sagittal
curve, and is drawn upon a properly oriented bone by means of a diagraph,
precisely as in the corresponding craniogram described elsewhere.
Several important sacral measurements may be measured upon it, such
as Nos. 2, 8, and 9. These may be measured also directly upon the bone,
and the two used to check each other. An instrument especially devised

118

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

for measurements 8 and 9 consists of two graded scales , set at right arigles
to each other. One spans the bone in the. median line, and is placed in
contact at the promontorium and the apex, while the other, which slides
upon the first, and also lengthens and shortens, is adjusted as desired.
When in the position cd its length, and its position on the base line, can
be read off on the scales.*

10. Antero-posterior (sagittal) diameter of the anterior articular surface',
the surface that articulates with the last lumbar vertebra. SC or TM

11. Lateral (transverse) diameter of the same. Nos 10 and 11 must
be at right angles to each other. SC or TM

II. INDICES

(a) Sacral indices; designed to show the general shape of the bone as a

whole.

I. Sacral index A (4 : 2)

anterior straight breadth X 100

mid-ventral straight length

1N anterior straight breadth X 100
2. Sacral index B (4 : 1) - 7-5

mid-ventral curved length

, N anterior curved breadth X 100
Sacral index' c (3:1)- =-^

mid-ventral curved length

Of the above three indices A is the classical one used by Turner;
while B and C have the merit of expressing the full value of the vertebral
axis, but have thus far been but little used. In these indices the sexual
difference is marked, the breadth measures, and consequently the indices,
being greater in females, f

The following values of Sacral index, A, have been found for various
races, and appear here. as compiled by Radlauer.

RACAL INDICES SACRAL INDEX A

Name or race

Males

Females

Negtoes . . ; . .

91.4 (33)

103.6 (18)

Egyptians ,..'.... '.

94.3 (7)

99.1 (2)

Andamanese

94.8 (22)

103.4 (35)

Australians

100.2 (14)

110.0 (13)

Japanese . ....

101.5 (37)

107 1 (36)

Europeans :

102.9 (63)

112.4 (43)

* This instrument was devised by RADLAUER and is figured by him in the article
above cited (p. 336).

t With the exception of the ossa coxae (innominata; there is no bone in the body
more profoundly modified by sex than is the sacrum. The sex should thus be con-
stantly regarded in all general averages, especially those which concern breadth of
the bones, or the depth of curvature, and in conclusions connected with racial char-
acteristics. Cf. DERRY: The influence of sex on the position and composition of the
Human Sacrum, in Journ. Anat and Physiol. (Engl.), 1912, pp. 184-192.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

119

The numbers in parentheses give the number of individuals studied
in each case.

Sacral indices like these are classified in three groups, with the fol-
lowing values :

Index below 100 dolichohieric

Index between 100 and 106 subplatyhieric

Index above 106 platyhieric

In general, averaging both sexes, the narrowest sacra (dolichohieric)
are those of Malays, Andamanese and Bushmen; sacra of middle pro-
portions are possessed by many Caucasians, American Indians, Chinese,
and Japanese; while wide sacra (platyhieric) occur among Australians
and the Apline peoples of Europe. There are, however, in many cases,
conflicting figures presented by different authorities, presumably because
of the small numbers of individuals measured, in some cases only three or
four.

(6) Longitudinal curvature indices.

mid- ventral straight length X 100

4. Curvature index A (2:1)

mid-ventral cui ved length

_ n j D /o- ON maximum height of curvature X 100

5. Curvature index B (8 : 2) - r^-

mid-ventral straight length

6. Curvature index C (9 : 2)

position of maximum height line X 100
mid-ventral straight length

These indices, devised by Radlauer, present the following values, al-
though the number of individuals used is often too small for final
conclusions.

CURVATURE INDICES OF VARIOUS RACES

Curvature

Name of race

index A.

index B.

index C.

Simian apes

98 7

9 6

42 9

Negroes . ...

92 4

18.1

63.1

American Indians

91 6

19 5

72 5

Asiatics

89 7

67.2

Australians and Oceanians

93.1

20.8

48.8

Europeans

86 5

23 6

50 4

In index A the nearer the index approaches 100 the flatter is the
longitudinal curve; in B the higher figures represent a deeper curve.
Thus, in the Simian apes both the high index A and the low index B show
that the longitudinal curve is slight, i.e., that the sacral axis is more nearly

120

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

a straight one than in man. The position of the point of greatest curva-
ture, as indicated by Index C, varies with the amount of curvature, lying
farther back (more posteriorly) when the curve is deeper. This is indi-
cated by the larger numbers, which show that the line ac is longer. In
this particular the Fuegians have the highest number, and consequently
the most posterior position of any race yet studied, modifying the general
rule concerning the relation of curvature to position of the foot of the
perpendicular, for in these people the actual amount of curvature,
although great, is not quite that of the Europeans.

m j i i A ON anterior straight breadth X 100

Transverse cunature index A (4 : 3) - ;

anterior curved breadth

Transverse curvature index B (6 : 5)

middle straight breadth X 100
middle curved breadth

These two indices consist merely of comparisons of the straight and
curved transverse diameters at respectively the anterior and middle parts
of the sacrum, and indicate the amount of curvature, or longitudinal
rolling, found in a given case. A similar index at the more posterior
part of the sacrum has no especial meaning, as there the ventral surface
of the bone is so flat that there is practically no difference between the
two measurements. For these two indices the following racial values
have been determined.

VALUES OF TRANSVERSE CURVATURE INDICES [RADLAUER, 394].

Name of Race

Transv. curv.
index A

Transv. curv.
index B

Lower apes

90 5

Simian apes

97.1

97 3

Australians, Oceanians

94.8

97 3

Negroes

94 6

97 8

Asiatics

95 1

97 4

American Indians

95.3

97 9

Europeans

95.5

From these figures it will be seen that the sacrum is more nearly flat
at about the middle than at the upper level; also that the European
have the flattest sacra transversely, and the Australians and negroes the
most curved, along the same aspect. Taken as racial criteria the slight
difference shown here, which include the races of the greatest general
difference, gives us little to hope for in the use of these indices. Prob-
ably the actual value of these transverse curvature indices is but
slight.

OSTEOMETKY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 121

(d) Miscellaneous

, ., 1 . x sagittal diameter X 100

9. Index of the sacral base (10 : 11) - p

transverse diameter

This index, a comparison of the two diameters of the anterior articular
surface of the first sacral vertebra, (= Sacral base) has not yet been shown
to be of much importance racially. It gives the relative shape of this
flat surface, and range from 54.1 in the inhabitants of the Ural Mts. to
66.4 in the Burmese. The index for Europeans is estimated at 58.5,
but for the Alpine peoples, at 58.7. In Negroes it is 61.2 and in Asiatics
in general 62.6.

III. ANGLES

Promontory angle; this is the angle formed between the flat surface
of the sacral basis and the beginning of the longitudinal curve of the ven-
tral surface, as taken in the mid-ventral line, (angle fae, or fac in Fig. 37)
This angle is the least in the Tyrolese, 58; and the highest in Asiatics,
averaging, 65. In the Neolithic station at Schweizersbild are found
sacra with a promontory angle of 70, five degrees more than in any recent
race.

The sacral inclination angle (No. 5 under Pelvic girdle, above) uses
the plane of the sacral base for one of its sides, but, as it requires the
spino-symphysial plane for the other, must be taken only on a complete
girdle. Another form of the Promontory angle, which is in some ways
more satisfactory than the one given here, might be made by using, with
the same plane of the sacral base, the entire straight length line instead
of the one indicating the anterior portion of the ventral surface, i.e.,
the line ab of Fig. 37 rather than the line ae of the same figure. This
line seems not to have been used, and is hence not recommended
here.

Other angles suggested, and occasionally used, are (1) the angle formed
by the plane of the two auricular surfaces, usually meeting along an im-
aginary line posterior to the bone, and (2) the angle of inclination of
the sacrum, or of the sacral axis, when the subject is standing. This
latter, like that of the inclination of the pelvis as a whole, can be measured
only upon the living subject, and then only approximately.

It might be possible, however, to relate the sacrum to some definitely
determined plane in a properly articulated pelvic girdle, such as the spino-
symphysial plane or that of the rim of the lower pelvis, and thus obtain
proportions or relations of importance.

Anatomical variations in the sacrum, such as the number of the verte-
brae which compose it, or the sacralization of the last lumbar vertebra,
are mainly of biological interest, as are similar variations in other bones,
and seem to have no racial significance.

122 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

VI. THE BONES OF THE LEG AND FOOT

Femur*

I. MEASUREMENTS

A. Length

Under this head four possible measurements may betaken, asfollows :-

1. Absolute length', taken with the osteometric board. OB

2. Physiological length; this is the length used by Turner, and described
by him as "taken in the oblique position". The two condyles are set
upon a plane surface, and the length is then measured along a line per-
pendicular to this plane. This is taken with the osteometric board by
placing the two condyles in contact with the fixed end. The shaft then
lies obliquely in the trough of the board, and the moveable piece is shut
down upon the head, thus measuring the greatest length obtainable
with the bone in this position. This corresponds to the physiological, or
efficient, length in the living limb. OB

- 3. Trochanteric length; from the most prominent point of the greater
trochanter to the most distal point of the lateral condyle. This is an
especially convenient measure, since it can be taken upon an articulated
skeleton, or upon a fragmentary femur that has lost the head.

It can also be approximately detei mined upon the living subject . RC
Recent English work on this bone is that of Parsons; Characters of
the English Thigh-bone (Journ. Anat. [English], Vol. 48, 1913-14; and
Vol. 49, 1914-15). The author obtained his material from a crypt of the
13th and 14th Centuries, where the bones of some 33,000 persons had
been interred, and thus had recourse to an enormous collection of bones
of mediaeval Englishmen. Holtby in the same Journal (Vol. 52, 1918),
gives a few additional data.

4. Diaphysial length (shaft-length); this uses as the two terminal
points the upper end of the anterior intertrochanteric line, marked by a
slight tubercle, and the middle of the anterior intercondyloid line, that is,
its most proximal point. This may be measured by any suitable in-
strument; Lehmann-Nitsche uses a steel tape. RC or TM.

* A thorough analysis of the femur anthropometrically, both in the recent species,
and in H. primigeniits, is found in KLAATSCH'S paper in Merkel and Bonnet's Anat.
Ergebnisse, Bd. X. 1900. The special part treating of the femur is found on pp.
609-665. There is also an excellent bibliography of the subject to date. The full
title is, Die wichtigsten Variationen am Skelet der freien unteren Extremitaten
des Menschen, und ihre Bedeutung fiir das Abstammingsproblem.

Much of the pioneer work upon the femur, and the other long bones, was done
by LEHMANN-NITSCHE in his investigation of the prehistoric " Reihengraber " skeletons
Cf. for this, his " Untersuchungen tiber die langen Knochen der siidbayerischen Rei-
hengraberbevolkerung", in Beitrage zur Anthropol. u. Urgeschichte Bayerns. Bd. IX.
1895.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 123

B. Shaft.

(a) Proximal shaft diameters SC or Cr.
5. Dorso-ventral diameter of shaft \ At a point about 3 cm. distal to

6. Medio-lateral diameter of shaft J the lesser trochanter.

(6) Middle shaft diameters SC or Cr.

7. Dorso-ventral diameter of shaft \ ., c ,, , ,,

, ,. J , , J f . > At the middle of the shaft.

8. Medio-lateral diameter of shaft )

9. Circumference of shaft at the middle; taken at the same level as
the two previous measurements.

C. Proximal end.

10. Oblique proximal breadth; the greatest breadth of the proximal
epiphysis, measured along the axis of the head and neck. This measure-
ment is taken from the free surface of the head to the most lateral point
on the surface of the greater trochanter. SC or RC.

11. Length of head and neck; from the free surface of the head to the
center of the intertrochanteric line.

*12. Vertical diameter of the head; this is measured on the periphery
and is the greatest diameter possible in this plane, which is parallel
with the main axis of the shaft of the bone. SC.

13. Transverse diameter of the head; similar to the last but taken
through a plane at right angles to the axis of the bone, and to the plane
used in the previous measurement. SC.

14. Circumference of the head; taken around the largest place. TM.

15. Vertical diameter of the neck; taken across the neck, in the same
plane as that used in measurement 12. SC.

16. Transverse diameter of the neck; taken across the neck, at right
angles to the previous measurement; in the same plane as No. 13. SC.

17. Circumference of the neck; naturally the maximum circumference
is intended. TM.

D. Distal end.

18. Dorso-ventral diameter of the shaft just above the condyles. For
this a point in the middle of the flat area proximal to the condyles should

* PARSONS (Engl. Journ. Anat., 1913-14, p. 253) finds the diameter of the head
of the femur of great use in sexing the bone, as this measurement is distinctly less in
the female. Instead of using the vertical and transverse diameters, as recommended
here (Nos. 12 and 13) the author uses the maximum diameter, which he finds by ro-
tating the slide compass around the periphery of the head until he finds it (usually
not far from the vertical line as here used). In English females this diameter is nearly
always less than 45 mm.; in males of the same people it is in excess of 47 mm. In
those few cases which are between these limits one cannot be certain about the sex.
Cf. also, DWIGHT, in Amer. Journ. Anat., Vol. IV, 1905, pp. 19-32.

124

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

be taken, about 4 cm. proximal to the line delimiting the articular
surface. Cr.

19. Medio-lateral diameter of the shaft just above the condyles. This
is to be taken at the same transverse level as No. 18, and should be at
right angles with it. Cr.

20. Greatest medio-lateral breadth across the epicondyles; this is the
greatest medio-lateral breadth of the lower end of the bone, and is
ascertained by trial. It should be strictly lateral, and not passed ob-
liquely from a ventral portion of one condyle to a dorsal portion of the
other. OB; perhaps also SC or RC.

*21. Greatest dorso-ventral length of the lateral condyle; taken with the
SC across the bone, at right angles to the axis. SC.

*22. Greatest dorso-ventral length of the medial condyle; taken in the
same way as the preceding. SC.

* The significance of these last two measurements has been brought out in the
comparison of the distal end of the femur in modern man and in the Neandertal
species, as in the latter the lateral condyle is distinctly longer (deeper) than the
medial one, while in the modern type the two are about equal. Thus, comparing
the two although with a very few individuals concerned, we have the following:

Name of race

Length of lat.
condyle

Length of med.
condyle

Average of 25 modern femora; various races

55.3

European, No. 1

European, No. 2

Negrito

Neandertal (right)

Neandertal (left)

Spy 1 (right)

Again, by comparing the length of the lateral condyle (Measurement No. 21)
with the length of the entire bone (here the trochanteric length, Measurement No. 3),
the excessive length of the condyle in the Neandertals becomes at once apparent,
thus:

Name of race

Trochanteric
length

Length of lat-
eral condyle

Negrito

390

Fuegians (8)

406.4

61.2

Veddah

425

Europeans (3)

443.3

Neandertal (right,;

423

Neandertal (left)

425

Spy I (right) . .

410 (approx.)

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 125

n. INDICES
A. Caliber indices.

T r ,, . , j / o\ circum. of shaft at middle X 100

1. Length-circumference index (9:2)- : ^

physiological length

T ,T j. j / i o r\ sagit. + transverse diameters

2. Lerqth-diameterindex(7 + 8 : 2) ^j^e of shaft X 100

The ' ' Robusticity index ' ' r-j

physiological length

B. Shape indices.

3. KS$ feb, (5 : 6) ant.-post. diam. of shaft proximal X 100

transverse diam. at same point

platymeric below 85

eurymeric 85-100

stenomeric 100 +

(middle) dorso-ventral diam. of shaft, at middle

4. Pilastric index (7 : 8) of the bone X 100

medio-lateral diam. at same point
(distal) dorso-ventral of shaft, just above

5. Popliteal index (18 : 19) the epicondyles X 100

medio-lateral diam. at same point

G. Indices of proximal end.

TT j j i /io io\ transverse diam. of head X (100

6. Head index A (13 : 12) - -. -p ^-r

vertical diam. of head

7. Head index .5(13 + 12 :2) transverse + vertical diameters of
"Robusticity index" head X 100

8. Neck-length index (11

physiological length
length of head and neck + 100

physiological length

D. Indices of distal end.

9. Epicondylar breadth index (20 : 2) greatest medio-lateral breadth

across the epicondyles X 100
physiological length

10. Intercondylar index (22 : 21) length of medial epicondyle X 100

length of lateral epicondyle

., 1 n , , , .7.7 / 01 O N length of lateral epicondyle X 100

11. Condylar length index (21:2) - r . , .-,-,

physiological length

Many of the indices above listed were at first devised to bring out more
definitely certain differences already noted, which occur between man
and the higher apes, or between modern man and the prehistoric H.
neandertalensis, and hence like differences shown by measurements be-
tween the various human races may be found to have a developmen-
tal significance. Thus, the head of the femur is enormously large in
the Neandertal type as compared with the modern species; and the
difference in the shape of the shaft between the two human species and
the gorilla is shown by the pilastric index. Other indices, indicate form-

126 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

differences that have been in all probability brought about by habitual
posture or habit, such as an habitual squatting as compared with sitting
in chairs or upon stools. A few significant results as interesting in com-
parisons, may be given here.

Platymeric index (No, 3) . Normal femora are always either platy- or
eury-meric. Stenomeric femora seem always to be pathological. Among
extremely platymeric peoples may be reckoned the Maori (63.6) the
Hawaiians (65.4) and the Fuegians (66.9). The Hindu (72.6) and the
Japanese (75.5) are moderately platymeric. The native Australians
(82.2) and the Swiss (84.6) are almost eury-meric; and the Negroes
(85.3), the French (88.2), and the Eskimo (88.3), are quite so. Ancient
British skeletons, excavated in the neighborhood of the Roman wall,
are very platymeric (67.7), while the modern British are more nearly
eurymeric, with an average index of 81.8. This may suggest a partial
substitution of race, or may be the result of a cultural change in the
manner of resting, chairs vs. squatting.

Pilastric index (No. 4) . This index is that of the two diameters of the
bone, taken in the middle of the shaft, and is thus named from its in-
clusion of the longitudinal ridge or pilaster, which furnishes an attachment
for certain of the large thigh muscles. This index is open to the objection
that it is modified by the degree of development of the ridge, yet it shows
considerable differences between modern man and the large apes, and
may be considered of value. In general, in man, the shaft is in this
region nearly circular, taken without the pilaster, and may thus be pre-
sumed to furnish an index of about 100. This the pilaster itself increases
so that in all men an index of some over 100 is to be expected. The
following indices have been found:

Australians 122.2

Veddah 122.1

Eskimo 118.4

Malay 114.7

N. Amer. Indians ...... 112.4

Cro-Magnon. . "...... 111.6

Maori 110.1

Negroes 108.0

French 107.8

South Germans 105.3

Fuegians 103.5

Japanese 100.0

Neandertal species (aver.) 99.0

Gorilla (5 femora; aver.) 78.0

Neck-length index (No. 8). In the exact form advised here there
do not seem to be available figures as yet, but for two measurements very
similar to those involved certain interesting figures are known. In

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

127

these the trochanteric length (No. 3) and the total distance from the
head to the outer margin of the bone are taken, which is very similar to
our Measurement No. 10. The index can be readily calculated. The
measures are generally those of single femora; those marked * are
averages.

Name of race

Trochanteric
length

Proximal breadth

Japanese ... . . . . ...

390

*Ainu. ... .... ....

394.4

85.8

Javanese

400

*Fuegian

408 7

Malay . . . .

410

Gilbert Islander

420

*South Germans

428

91.5

Neandertal (right) . .

423

105

Neandertal (left)

425

106

Spv I..

410 (approx.)

110

The markedly greater length of the proximal epiphysis in the Neander-
tal species, as compared with recent man, is here clearly shown. With
a moderate trochanteric length the proximal breadth, that is, the length
of the axis of head and neck, is far greater than is f dund in any normal
femur of modern man. This is probably correlated in some way with the
massiveness of the head of the femur in the earlier species.

Head index B; = Robusticity index of head (No. 7). This index should
show the large size of the head in femora of the Neandertal species, since
this peculiarity strikes the eye immediately, and is indicated by the
following list of measurements. Although these give the absolute,
instead of the physiological, length, the two differ but two or three
millimeters as a rule, and indices using this length instead of the one
recommended here, would show the contrast very decidedly. The figures,
mostly of single measurements, are as follows:

Name of race

Absol. length

Vertical diam.
of head

Transverse
diam. of head

Circumference
of head

Adamanese

375

36 1*

Lapps . .

380 5

40 3*

Hawaiian

404

39 0*

Fuegians

427 1

45 9

46 3

146.4

Alemanni (ancient)

436.6

44.3

45.4

147

Neandertal (right) .

439

50 5

52.0

164

Neandertal (left)...

440

52.0

53.0

165

Spy 1 (right) .

430

175

(approx.)

In the figures marked
specified.

there is but one diameter given, and that one is not

128 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Here the Neandertals are best compared with the Alamanni, in which
the absolute length is about the same, while the disparity in the dimen-
sions of the head are evident. That this large and heavy head is in some
way correlated with the great length of the proximal epiphysis, which
includes head and neck, is highly probable.

III. ANGLES

1. Collo-diaphysial angle. This is the angle made by the axis of head
and neck with that of the shaft (of the bone as a whole). It is usually
measured by first placing steel needles along the bone to define the two
axes, and then measuring the angle made by their intersection by means
of a transparent, or other, protractor.

As this angle varies at different ages, becoming more nearly a right
angle in senile femora, it should be used only through the middle part
of life, from maturity to perhaps the 60th year. The angle differs
markedly in the two human species, H. sapiens and H. neandertalensis,
being much greater in the former. Thus in Germans it averages 125.9,
in Swiss, 133.; and in Fuegians, 123.0, while in Homo neandertalensis it
varies between 115 and 120.

2 Condylo-diaphysial angle. Stand several femora on the table,
on their distal ends, resting both condyles on the surface, and with the
bone extending vertically upward, and it will be noticed that the inclina-
tion of the bone to the surface of the table is not the same. This displays
practically the condylo-diaphysial angle, which is the angle between a
line drawn across the condyles distally and the axis of the shaft. As in
the former case these lines are determined by the eye, and marked by
steel needles, fixed to the bone by wax, or plastilene, while the angle is
read off by a protractor. It may be also measured by means of a specially
prepared osteometric board, upon which the bone is laid as in getting
the physiological length. This angle has been determined at 8 in
Fuegians, and 11 in Swiss. In H. neandertalensis it has been estimated
at 9, quite within the range of variation of modern men.

3 Angle of torsion; the angle formed by the axis of head and neck
projected upon that of the condyles, and is measured in the same way as
is the like-named angle in the humerus, by the parallelograph. If
found to be easier the two axes may be marked by applying steel needles
to the bone. The bone is then held vertically in a clamp, and the two
axes are drawn as projections upon a piece of paper placed on the table
underneath the suspended bone (see Fig. 11, p. 18).

This angle shows great individual variation, but may be of some racial
value also. Thus Martin found in Fuegians a range of values between
6 and 38, with a mean value of 18.3. The right femur of the Neander-
tal skeleton has a torsion angle of 9.5, and the same bone in Spy 1,
shows a value of 12.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 129

IV. CURVATURE OF SHAFT

This character of the femur may be noticed incidentally by placing
a series of femora on the table, dorsal side down, and lying in their
natural position, when it will be noticed that the highest point of the
convex curve of the ventral (anterior) surface differs considerably, i.e.,
that some femora lie flatter than others. This is a definite characteristic
of the Neandertals, in whom the femora curve up strikingly higher than
do those of the present living species.

No special apparatus has been devised to measure this with accuracy
but by simply measuring the highest point of this curve by a ruler held
vertically upon the table, and making an index with this as numerator
and the physiological length as denominator. In this way the amount
of curvature of individual bones may be easily compared.

Patella*

In spite of its small size, the patella is an important bone anthro-
pometrically, as it is one of the parts, like the distal end of the femur,
the proximal end of the tibia, and the bones of the ankle, which are
concerned in the various methods of sitting and squatting, and are thus
modified by the cultural environment of various races. These effects
are largely seen on the dorsal (inner) surface, expressed in the articular
surfaces; there are also differences in the relative size and shape of the
entire bone. Yet, although these racial and individual differences have
been recognized, very little actual work has as yet been done upon this
bone, and the measurements proposed (e. g. Martin; Lehrbuch, pp.
930-31) are still mainly in the form of suggestion for future investigation.!

The articular surface of a patella is divisible into a number of facets,
set at slightly different angles, reflecting the various habitual positions
of the knee in different races and in different individuals. The most
constant are (1) an inner and (2) an outer, of which the inner is much
narrower, thus easily orientating the bone and distiguishing the left
from the right. In some races there seem to be three such the third
being placed between the first two. The outer one, also, is sometimes
divided across into a larger upper, and a much smaller lower facet, as is
seen in the Punjabi [Lamont, 1900]. The proportions of these facets
may be readily expressed by the indices of the measurements of the
maximum length and breadth of these separate facets.

Aside from the study of the facets there are the measurements of the
bone as a whole. Martin (1914) gives the following measurements.-

1 Maximum height', taken along the main axis of the extended leg,
from base to apex. SC.

* See a paper by J. C. LAMONT in Jour. Anat. and Physiol., Vol. 44, 1910. This is
upon the patella of the Punjabi and consists of two pages only, but is important,
t (See note at end of section on Tibia.).
9

130 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

2 Maximum breadth; across the bone from side to side, at right
angles to the previous measurement. SC.

3 Maximum thickness; taken by placing the patella in the sagittal
plane between the two arms of the slide compass. SC.

Then follow certain definite measures of the articular surfaces, which
can be devised by the investigator in accordance with what he wishes to
show. Martin suggests the height (proximo-distal) of the entire arti-
cular surface, and the breadth of the two lateral facets. For indices he
suggests :-

1 Height index; this compares the height of the patella with the com-
bined length of femur and tibia, and in order to make a comparison
between two measurements of such different proportions, he takes a
tenth of the latter measure, or, what is the same thing, multiplies the
numerator (height of the patella) by 1000 instead of 100, thus

Maximum height of patella (1) X 1000
length of femur + length of tibia

For definite values of this index he suggests,

low patella below 50

medium height 50-55

high patella 55 +

2. Breadth index; he avoids dealing with such disparity in numbers
by comparing the patellar breadth with the breadth of the femoral
epicondyles, thus,

maximum breadth of patella (2) X 100

epicondylar breadth of femur
values :

narrow patella below 51

medium breadth 51-56

broad patella 56+

3. Height-breadth index of patella; this is simply the index of the two
main dimensions of the patella, considered as a disc; measurements
1 : 2, thus

maximum height of patella X 100
maximum breadth of patella

Tibia

I. MEASUREMENTS
A. Lengths.

1 Maximum length (spino-malleolar) measured with the inclusion of
the intercondylar and malleolar spines, and hence possible on complete
bones only. OB

2 Maximum length (condylo- malleolar); measured with the calipers

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 131

(pelvimeter) from the proximal articular surface (internal condyle) to the
extreme end of the internal malleolus. PM

3 Physiological length; measured with calipers (pelvimeter) be-
tween articular surfaces and avoiding the projecting processes at either
end; usually taken from the deepest point in the medial articular surface
of the proximal end to the bottom of the hollow in the distal articular
surface, just within the malleolus. PM

Lehmann-Nitsche, in his investigation of prehistoric German graves
(Reihen-Graber. 1895) uses the second maximum length, that is, the
one without the intercondylar spine. Mollison (1908) uses the first and
the third. Thus, for two Maori skeletons (right and left) he gives the
following measurements :

1 Spino-malleolar length 318 315 341 339
3 Condylo-astragal length 294 294 312 311
( = "physiological")

B. Shaft.

4 Dorso-ventral (sagittal) diameter } Taken just below the level of

5 Medio-lateral (transverse) diameter J the tuberosity. SC or CR.

6 Dorso-ventral (sagittal) diameter } Both taken at the level of the

7 Medio-lateral (transverse) diameter t nutrient foramen, i.e., at about

J the proximal third. SC or Cr.

8 Dorso-ventral (sagittal) diameter 1 Both taken at the middle of

9 Medio-lateral (transverse) diameter j the shaft. SC or Cr.

10 Circumference of the shaft (middle)

11 Least circumference of the shaft; this place will be found somewhere
in the distal fourth of the bone, generally about 10 cm. above the point
of the malleolus. TM

12 Proximal epiphysial breadth; greatest medio-lateral breadth of the
proximal end of the bone; the bicondylar breadth. SC

13 Sagittal diameter of the distal epiphysis; taken dorso-ventrally
across the distal end of the bone. SC or Cr.

1 Platycnemic index (7 : 6)

II. INDICES

medio-lat. diam. (nutr. for) X 100

dorso-ventral diam. (nutr. for)

platycnemic below 63

mesocnemic 63-70

eurycnemic 70 +

This index expresses the degree of platycnemy, or medio-lateral
flatness, of a given tibia, a peculiarity which occurs sporadically in
individuals of all races, and is practically constant in primitive peoples,
and in ancient bones in general. Thus in Neolithic bones from French

132

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

soil the range of the platycnemic indices runs from 61.5 to 65.4, while in
the modern French the indices fall between 71 and 74. This may be a

o u

2 .3

a o3

c3 9

r-, WO

5 d *<

a-
g

^ 3

a -a

M 0^)

13 -^ a

W gj

^3 s "" a

rt O o .,

s ^s

IH O I

O bfi JS

05 43

cultural modification due to the resting posture, squatting vs. sitting in a
chair, [cf. Note below].

, N least circumference of shaft X 100
2. Cahber^mdex (11 : 1) - =

maximum length

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 133

III. ANGLES

1 Retroversion angle

2 Inclination angle

3 Biaxial angles

These angles are involved in the description of the noticeable bend
which the upper end of the tibia makes with the remainder of the shaft,
best seen when the bone is in profile. They are best measured with a
protractor upon a projection on a sheet of paper, drawn from a bone
placed horizontally above it, with the lateral (outer) aspect uppermost.
Certain essential points and lines are first located on the bone and then
projected upon the paper.

The termini of the mechanical axis are first determined as follows,
and marked on the bone with a pencil. The proximal point is the center
of the deepest portion of the articular surface of the inner condyle, (B)
and the distal one is in the middle of the very slight ridge that runs
sagitally across the distal articular surface (A). The line drawn through
these is the mechanical axis. The next is the determination of the plane
of inclination of- the articular surface of the medial condyle, which is
effected by placing a steel needle tangent to the -surface and in a dorso-
ventral direction, and fixing it in the desired position with wax. (JK)

When these preliminaries are done the bone is placed in a horizontal
position above a large sheet of paper lying on the table, with the lateral
(outer) surface facing directly upwards, and the essential points projected
upon the paper, precisely beneath its position on the bone. The hold-
ing of the bone may be effected by means of a clamp upon an iron retort
stand, and the projections drawn by diagraph or parallelograph. Indeed,
a fairly accurate projection may be made by placing the bone almost in
contact with the paper, and then tracing around it with a pencil from which
the wood upon one side has been whittled away. The pencil must be
held perpendicularly. This need not be a complete contour tracing,
but must include the accurate locating of the two points in the two artic-
ular surfaces above mentioned, two points along the course of the steel
needle, as far apart as convenient, and bits of the contour of the sides of
the shaft in the vicinity of the nutrient foramen.

When these points are located, connecting lines are drawn through
and between these as follows: (see Fig. 38)

(a) The mechanical axis; from the distal articular point, A, to

the proximal one, B.
(&) The line EF, directly across the shaft, about 2 cm below

(distal to) the tuberosity nurti. This line, limited at both

sides by the shaft contours, is bisected at C, which is the

point sought,
(c) The diaphysial axis; drawn from the point A, in common with

the former axis, through the point C, coming out proximately

wherever it may. (here, in the figure, at D)

134 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

(d) The line of inclination of the inner condyle, which is that of
the steel needle; found by connecting the two points already
located in the projection. Naturally these may be placed
anywhere along the needle, but the line is more accurate
the farther apart they are. JK.

The three angles above listed are thus constructed, and now have
merely to be read off, thus:

1 Retroversion angle; the angle JDG is measured for this, after
which 90 are subtracted. This gives the value of the true
retroversion angle, LMD, which is that between the axis
of the retro verted proximal end (at right angles to the inclination
of the face of the condyle) and the diaphysial axis.

2 Inclination angle HLK, the angle of inclination of the face of
the inner condyle, compared with that of the mechanical
axis of the entire bone. Here also 90 are to be subtracted.

3 Biaxial angle; that between the two long axes here used,
mechanical and diaphysical, HAG. Its value is that of the
difference between the two preceding angles, of reversion and
inclination. Thus, in the diagram here shown, Fig. 38, the
first is 25, the second 21, and the biaxial 4.

The reason for using the plane of inclination of the proximal articu-
lar surface is that it is at right angles to the axis of the short proximal part,
the angle of retroversion of which is sought, and that it can be placed in
a projection with considerable precision, while there is little to use in
placing a definite axis to this short part. This large surface is, however,
at right angles to the axis sought, and hence its angle may be measured
and then reduced by 90. Should the investigator so desire, he might
ascertain the axis of each part as he best can by estimation, fix steel
needles to both, and measure the angle between them direct on the bone,
as in similar cases.

The value of this retroversion angle has been found to vary from in
an ancient French skeleton to 30 in a California Indian, but is usually,
in European skeletons, between 15 and 20. The diagram given here
where the angle of retroversion is 25, is taken from an Australian.

A considerable retroversion of the tibia is the usual fetal condition,
even in Europeans, and is retained during infancy. In other words it is
a universal human condition of human tibiae at birth, and is retained by
certain of the lower races, but is generally outgrown by Europeans.

4. Angle of torsion; as with such bones as the humerus and the femur,
this angle is made by the lateral axes of the two ends of the bone, pro-
jected upon each other in a bone held perpendicular to the paper. The
proximal axis passes through the two condyles, at right angles to what
is judged to be the sagittal plane, and the distal axis is drawn across the
articular surface from the point of the inner malleolus to the opposite
side, as in the case of the radius. Little has been done with this angle

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 135

within recent years, but Miculicz in 1878 determined its usual value as
lying between 5 and 20, with extremes of and 48.

IV. SPECIAL FEATURES

The profile of the articular surface of the lateral condyle, as seen from
from the lateral side, has been found to vary markedly in certain human
races, although it is a character which cannot be easily expressed by
measurements. At one extreme of the series of outlines which this sur-
face presents we find one that is almost a plane, or even slightly convex;
the series then passes through the various stages of a slight or a consider-
able convexity, becoming decidedly rounded at the other end of the series.
This last is found among individual Andamanese, although it is by no
means a general character.

A modification at the distal end, which must be taken in connection
with corresponding ones in the talus, which articulates with it. It con-
sists of the extension of the articular surface forwards (i.e., ventrally)
especially along the medial side, and is plainly a modification due to an
extreme flexed position of the foot upon the leg, in the position of squat-
ting. This is one of the most simple and easily noticed modifications
correlated with posture, and should be studied in connection with several
others noticed here. As expressed by one of the latest investigators on
the subject, Havelock Charles, "The history of the influence of the chair
upon the tibia has got to be written." Such studies of the correlation of
the details of the bones and certain habitual actions and postures has not
only a fundamental biological interest, but will allow the investigator to
obtain numerous details concerning the daily life and activities of pre-
historic peoples, written in definite, though as yet unknown characters
upon their bones.*

* The following papers deal directly with the influence of habitual posture upon
the bones of the lower limbs, and the results are deduced mainly by comparison of
Europeans with races like the Punjabi of India, who in a resting position squat upon
their heels without coming in contact with the ground. Such a posture induces an
extreme flexion at hip, knee and ankle, and naturally modifies the articular surfaces
and other characters.

THOMSON, A.: The influence of posture on the form of the articular surfaces of
the Tibia and Astragalus in the different races of men and the higher apes. Journ.
Anat. and Physiol, XXIII, N. S. Vol. Ill, 1889.

THOMSON, A.: Additional note on the influence of posture, etc. Journ. Anat.
and Physiol, XXIV, N. S. IV, 1890.

CHARLES H. : The influence of function as exemplified in the morphology of the
lower extremity of the Punjabi. Journ. Anat. and Physiol, XXVIII, N. S. XIII,
1894.

CHARLES H. : Morphological peculiarities in the Punjabi and their bearing on
the question of the transmission of acquhed characters. Journ. Anat. and Physiol,
XXVIII, 1894.

LAMONT. J. C. ; Note on the influence of posture on the facets of the patella.
Journ. Anat. and Physiol, Vol. XLIV, 1900.

136 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

The Fibula

I. MEASUREMENTS

1. Absolute length; taken .with the osteometric board. Only to be
taken in bones with the two ends perfect. OB.

2. Circumference of the middle of the shaft. TM.

3. Least circumference. TM.

II. INDICES

n T -r j /o \ least circumference X 100

1. Caliber index (3:1)- r , . > ij-~

absolute length

This bone has thus far been studied anthropometrically but very little
and yet, as the bone is easily modified by the usual position of the leg,
both in sitting, standing, and walking, it is very probable that striking
differences, both morphological and cultural, will be revealed to future
study. It is an excellent bone to recommend for future work. Thus, as
a beginning, Martin has noticed its absolute straightness in Fuegians
in contrast to the curve seen in Europeans, the concavity being forward.
Klaatsch correlates a straight fibula with a large degree of tibial rever-
sion, the two occurring together in legs the feet of which rest largely
along their outer edges, as in apes and infants. The correction of the
tibia, by which the proximal end is brought forward affects also the fibula,
which is attached to it, bringing its proximal end also forward, and
giving the entire bone a light curve. There is also some variation of the
relative position of the two lower leg bones, as is seen by comparing on
several tibiae the actual position of the facets for the fibula. Thus the
fibula of the Spy skeletons was placed upon the tibia more as is that of
the present-day Mongolian. The neandertaloid fibula seems to indicate
that the foot came in this species in contact with the ground more along
the outer edge than in modern man, and that the modern correction has
tended to shorten the length and reduce the caliber, of the whole bone.

The Foot Skeleton in General*

As the human foot has been subject to much more profound modifica-
tions than the hand in changing from the typical anthropoid condition, so
is the study of its proportions of more importance. Many of its peculiar-

* For the foot skeleton in general, cf .

VOLKOV, TH.; Les variations squelettiques du pied chez les Primates et dans les
races humaines. Bull, et Mem. de la Soc. d'Anthropol. de Paris. 1905.

LAZARUS, S. P.; Zur Morphologic des Fuss-skelets. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. XXIV,
1896.

ADACHI, B. und MME. ADACHI: Die Fussknochen der Japaner. Mitt, der med.
Fak. der Univ. Tokio. 1905.

UHLBACH, R.; Messungen an Hand-und Fuss-skelet von Hottentotten. Zeitschr.
Morph. und Anthropol., Bd. XVI, Jan., 1914.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT or THE BONES 137

ities are due to morphological causes; others to cultural ones. The
first considers the gradual shaping of an arboreal foot from a climbing,
prehensile organ, to a firm platform for walking upon the ground, changes
which are largely due to the shaping of the peroneal muscles for lifting
the outer edge, and in part also to the giving up by the first digit of the
most of its prehensile function, and the gaining of greater size and strength
for the application of force in a new direction. The second, or cultural,
changes, are the result in part of the introduction of new methods of
sitting, standing, and walking, and in part modified by the introduction
of various types of shoes and sandals.

Aside from the study of the foot as a whole, several of the separate
bones deserve special treatment, especially the talus, which forms the
main articulation with the tibia, and is thus concerned in all general
acts, such as walking. Next in importance come calcaneus and navi-
culare, which have already been the subject of anthropometric research,
while the remaining bones have been studied mainly in relation to the
shape of the entire foot. These three specially named bones are here
treated in detail, after which the foot is considered as a whole.

Talus

Orientation. The bone is to be first placed on a table, with the
trochlear surface uppermost, and with the navicular head towards the
observer. The bottom of the trochlear groove, which is almost a straight
line may be marked with a pencil, and gives approximately the location of
the sagittal axis (SS in Fig. 38). The transverse axis (TT) runs across
the middle of the trochlea, at right angles to the sagittal axis. As the
navicular head forms, with its neck, a distinct portion of the bone, the
collum tali, it may be considered to have its own axis, as drawn by the
eye through the middle of this portion, beginning at the center of the

HASEBE, K.; Ueber die Haufigkeit der Coalescenzen, etc., der Fussknochen der
Japaner. Zeitschr. Morph. und AnthropoL, Bd. XIV, 1912.

For separate tarsal bones, cf .

REICHER, M.; Beitrag zur Anthropologie des Calcaneus. Archiv. f. AnthropoL,
N. F. Bd. XII, 1913, pp. 108-133.

SEWELL, SEYMOUR; A study of the astragalus. Journ, Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.)
Apr., 1904; July, 1904; Oct., 1904; Jan., 1906.

MANNERS-SMITH; A study of the navicular in the human and anthropoid foot.
Journ. Anat. and Physiol. (Engl.), 1907.

MANNERS-SMITH; A study of the Cuboid and Os peroneum in the human foot.
Journ. Anal, and Physiol. (Engl.), 1907.

For relations of foot bones in the same foot, cf .

PFITZNER, W.; Beitragen zur Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremitaten skelets.
A series of papers in the Morphol. Arbeiten, especially, No. VII, Die Variationen im
Aufbau des Fuss-skelets, Bd. VI, 1896. This paper presents a summary of the details
obtained from more than a thousand human feet, personally prepared by the author
in order to prevent any possible confusion. Cf . also the work of this author, in the
same series, on the hand.

VIRCHOW, H.; Die Aufstellung des Fuss-skelet. Anat. Am., Bd. VII, 1892.

138 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

articulation with the navicular bone. This axis (ac) makes an important
angle with the sagittal axis, the angle of the collum (acS). Oriented in
this way the talus presents the usual six aspects, or norms, of which the
most important are (1) the norma trochlearis, (Fig. 33) ; (2) the norma
basilaris, which is in contact with the calcaneus (Fig. 39) ; and (3) the
norma frontalis, or distalis, in contact with the naviculare (Fig. 40).

I. MEASUREMENTS

1 . Length ; greatest length obtainable between the bottom of the sulcus
for the tendon of Flexor hallucis longus and the fuithest point on the sur-
face of the navicular head; the line ab in Fig. 39. SC or Cr.

2. Breadth; from the furthest lateral point of the lateral process, in
the transverse axis, to the opposite side (Te in Fig. 39). SC or Cr.

3. Height: the distance of the highest point in the trochlear groove
from the table on which the bone rests (cd in Fig. 40). This measure-
ment is best taken by holding the bone upon a glass plate of known thick-
ness, say one millimeter, measuring the distance from the upper point
through to the lower surface of the glass plate, and then subtracting the
thickness of the glass. SC or Cr.

4. Length of the trochlea; measured with the slide compass along the
sagittal axis, between the borders of the articular surface. SC.

5. Breadth of the trochlea; measured with the slide compass along the
transverse axis, between the borders of the articular surface. SC.

6. Length of the head (caput tali); total length of the articular sur-
face covering the head, using as termini the ends of the longitudinal axis
of this surface. SC.

7. Breadth of the head (caput tali) ; total breadth of this surface, taken
at right angles to the above. SC.

8. Length of the posterior articular surf ace for the calcaneus (ab in Fig.
39); taken along the longitudinal axis of this surface SC.

9. Breadth of the posterior articular surface for the calcaneus (cd in
Fig. 39); taken at right angles to the previous measurement. SC.

1. Length-breadth index (2 : 1)

II. INDICES

breadth of the bone X 100

length of the bone

or 41 i n i to i\ height of the bone X 100

2. Length-height index (3:1)- n FTI r~

length of the bone

7 , 7 ,, . , , A , x length of trochlea X 100

3. Trocheal length index (4 : 1) - r 5-71 r

length of the bone

4. Length-breadth index of posterior calcanear articulation (9 : 8)

breadth of the post, calcan. artic. X 100
length of the same

jti. j f 4-L T, j fn a\ breadth of the head X 100

5. Length breadth index of the head (7 : 6) - -. 7 =- = =

length of the head

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

139

III. ANGLES

1 Angle of inclination of the collum tali; the angle between the axis
of the neck and the sagittal axis of the bone (as in Fig. 38).

2. Angle of torsion of the head; the angle between the longitudinal axis

FIG. 39. (After Seymour Sewell) .

of the headjjand the plane placed tangent to the highest points of the
trochlea (efg in Fig. 40).

3. Angle of inclination of the posterior articular facet; this is the angle
formed between the sagittal axis of the bone (i.e., the line of the trochlear

FIG. 40. (After Seymour Sewell).

trough) and the long axis of the posterior facet (SS, Fig. 38 with ab,
Fig. 39). As these two are not only in different planes, but also upon
opposite sides of the bone it is clear that the angle must be formed by
projection, which is accomplished in a practical way as follows. Steel

140

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

needles are applied to the surface of the bone, the one defining the longi-
tudinal axis of the trochlea, the other that of the posterior facet; a third
one is then placed upon the trochlear surface, crossing the needle which
defines the axis, and placed parallel to the needle upon the posterior
facet, which can be done by the help of the projecting endso this needle.
The angle thus formed by the intersection of the two needles in contact
may then be read off by the transparent protractor.

Calcaneus

The technique of the anthropometry of the calcaneus, as given here,
consists of the more important of the measurements proposed by Reicher,
in 1913 (Archiv fur Anthropol. XII, pp. 108-133). This work was done
at Zurich under Martin, who has also incorporated Reicher's results in
his text book (1914).

I. MEASUREMENTS

1. Maximum length; the length of the longitudinal axis of the bone,
which runs through the most backward projecting point of the tuber

FIG. 41. Right calcaneus, medial view, showing lines for measurement. (After Reicher.)

calcanei, and the middle of the upper edge of the articular surface for
the cuboid. There is a slight difference between this measure, taken
directly, as done by Volkov (1904), and by Reicher and Martin, who take
it projectively, dropping the two points down upon the surface upon
which the bone lies (line db in Fig. 41, dropped from a' and b' or d). The
line a'd would be oblique, and hence a little longer than ab. Reicher
mentions also what is really the physiologica, or working, length, which
ends anteriorly in the center of the cuboid articulation, i.e., the line cd
in Fig. 41. SC.

2. Breadth across the sustentaculum; this is taken across the sustenta-
culum to the most lateral point in the border of the posterior articular
surface for the talus, along a line at right angles to the longitudinal axis
and upon a horizontal plane, perpendicular to the sagittal plane, that is
involving a double projection (line ab in Fig. 42). This measurement is

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

141

not really difficult to take, as the two arms of the slide compass, as long,
parallel rods, may be placed parallel with the longitudinal axis of the
bone, and in an approximately horizontal plane. SC.

3. Least breadth of the body of the bone; this is taken, with the slide
compass held transversely to the longitudinal axis and enclosing the
narrowed portion of the bone, just anterior to the tuber calcanei, and
immediately behind the posterior articular surface for the talus. SC.

4. Height of the body; this is the distance from the bottom of the slight
depression between the raised upper

edge of the tuber calcanei and a similar
one at the back of the posterior articular
facet for the talus, and the substratum
upon which the bone is resting. It is
best measured, as in the case of the talus,
by holding the bone in the proper po-
sition upon a glass plate of known
thickness, taking the measure through
both glass and bone, and then sub-
tracting the thickness of the glass plate
(see measurement 3 under Talus; Fig.
40). The measurement, without the
glass plate, is shown as the line ef in
Fig. 41. Cr or SC.

5. Length of the body of the calcaneus
( = jthe effective length of the heel); this
is the length, taken along the longi-
tudinal axis, from the most backward
projecting point on the tuber to the
most anterior point of the anterior
margin of the posterior articular surface
for the talus (line cc' of Fig. 42). SC.

6. Breadth of the sustentaculum; taken from the most laterally project-
ing point of the sustentaculum, at right angles to the longitudinal axis,
to the medial edge of the sulcus for the tendon of the Flexor hallucis lon-
gus. This is a very uncertain measure, unless the line is taken exactly
at right angles to the longitudinal axes, as the medial limit is placed upon
an oblique line, which changes its relationship to the lateral one at every
point.

7. Height of the tuber calcanei; taken sagittally through the tuber from
the highest point above to the lowest point in the medial tuberal process,
as far anteriorly as possible. SC or Cr.

8. Breadth of the tuber calcanei; taken across the tuber, at right angles
to the previous one; the maximum breadth. SC or Cr.

9 and 10. Length and Breadth respectively of the posterior articular
surface for the talus. (Fig. 42, ef and gh). SC.

FIG.
above,
ment.

42. Right calcaneus, from
showing lines for measure-
(Afler Reicher.)

142 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

II. INDICES

, breadth across sustentaoulum X 100

1. Length-breadth index A (2 : 1) - -.

maximum length

_ T , , . , . . least breadth of body X 100

2. Lenqth-breadth index R (3 : 1) -- : - \ *rr -

maximum length

/ a i, i* j />i i\ height of body X 100

3. Length-height index (4:1) - =

maximum length

,L j in 1N length of the body (heel length) X 100
4.- Calcar length index (5 : 1) - r- = *-:

maximum length

rx breadth of the tuber X 100

5. T liberal index (8:7) - rr f .,

length of the tuber

6. Index of the posterior articular facet (10 : 9)*

breadth of post. art. facet X 100

length of post.' art. facet

III. ANGLES

1. Angle of inclination of the posterior articular facet; this is the angle
between the longitudinal axis of the facet in question and that of the
bone as a whole (cd and ef of Fig. 42). It is taken by fixing steel needles
in the proper places and reading the result by means of a protractor.

2. Talo-calcaneus angle; this is an angle involving the relative position
of the two bones considered, and differences in it are indicative of differ-
ences in the habitual position, and consequently in the use, of the foot.
It is really the angle formed between the longitudinal axis of the calcaneus
and that of the talus, through the trochlear trough, but is best obtained
by subtracting the angle of inclination of the posterior facet of the talus
from the corresponding angle on the calaneus (angle 3 of the talus from
angle 1 of the calcaneus) . This procedure assumes a complete coincidence
of the two posterior facets with their longitudinal axes, from which the
varying longitudinal axes of the two bones are laid off at definite though
different angles. The difference between these two, as measured from the
same plane, is the value of the angle sought.

The Other Tarsal Bones.

The remaining tarsal bones, especially cuboid and naviculare, have
been subjected to certain special anthropometrical measurements, upon
lines similar to those already laid down for the others. These consist
of lengths, breadths, and heights, the axes of important articular facets,
also indices expressing the relationships of these. The two first-men-

* Besides the above there have been used (1) the index between the length of the
sustentaculum and the breadth of the entire region, and (2) the length and breadth
of the cuboid articulation, with the index between them. The first would seem to
require an almost impossible accuracy in the length measurement; the latter is too
uncertain in many ways. However, these results may be consulted in the original
paper, above referred to.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES

143

tioned bones have been considered by Manners-Smith in the Journal of
Anatomy (EngL), 1907-1908, to which the reader is referred.

The Metacarpals and Phalanges.

In these bones, as in the hand, the most obvious measurements are,
first of all, the total lengths of the separate bones, and then the breadths
of the two epiphyses and the middle of the shaft, also certain of the girths
especially the least circumferences. For these itis obvious that some very

FIG. 43. Torsion of the calcaneus, in various Primates. (From Loth, after Volkov.)

A. Chimpanzee.

B. Gorilla.

C. Australian.

D. European.

delicate method of measurement should be devised, such as, for example,
the use of fine wire, as employed by dentists in getting the caliber of a
tooth.

As for indices, aside from those derived from the measurements of
single bones there are obviously collective indices obtained by adding
certain similar measurements of a series of bones, for example, the entire
breadth of the foot at a given point might be represented by adding the

144 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

breadths of the proximal epiphyses of all five metatarsals, and this
combined breadth might very well be compared with a combined length,
such as those of the metatarsal, first, and second phalanges of digit
I. Thus the two following indices have been suggested and employed to
some extent.

breadth of metatarsals I-V (proximal) X 100

Foot index

length of digit I; metatarsal; phal. 1; phal 2
breadth of metatarsals I-V (proximal) X 100

Plantar index .

length of metatarsal I

As in the case of the knee, so the ankle joint, with the reciprocal
action of the various articular facets of the several bones involved is
of great importance in the study of habitual posture, and possible racial
differences due to environment and habit (see above, under Patella,
Femur, Tibia, etc). A noticeable angle, as seen from behind, is that
first pointed out by Volkov (1905) [Fig. 43]. For measuring this the
entire set of the bones involved must be accurately placed together as in
life, a feat impossible of accomplishment save by special treatment of
single specimens,* but the results show beautifully that the human foot
has descended from one whose sole was turned obliquely inwards, and
that certain of the races yet living have not progressed as far as the
Europeans in rectifying this. The four figures presented show the foot
skeleton in a natural position as seen from directly behind. The longer
axis of the tuber calcanei is indicated in all cases by a line, the inclination
of which to the long axis of the leg shows the habitual foot position. The
plane of the sole is in all cases set at right angles to this line. The tuberal
axis is thus in the chimpanzee (A) seen to be set at about 30 from the
perpendicular, in the gorilla (B) somewhat less; in the Veddahs from
Ceylon (C) the line approaches the perpendicular, and in the European
(D) this point is nearly attained.

The changes shown here phylogenetically appear in succession in the
first two or three years of life in the human infant, who passes through
all the stages in the gradual straightening of the feet for erect walking,
from the extreme simian position at first to the characteristic adult
condition. The use of both the feet and legs, as well as their frequent
postures, give many an indication of early conditions, when these mem-
bers possessed a more prehensile function than in the recent species.

Intermembral Indices

Intermembral indices, as used thus far, concern the lengths of the
four principal lengths of arm and leg, as represented by humerus, radius,
femur, and tibia, and express the various relations shown between them
by the use of a certain one as a standard. The particular lengths recom-
mended in this work are the following:-

*See H. VIBCHOW: Die Aufstellung der Fuss-skelets, in Anat. Am., VII, 1892.

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OP THE BONES 145

Humerus; Greatest length (1), as taken with the osteometric board
OB.

Radius; Physiological length (2); from the center of the capitellar
depression proximally to the center of the slight ridge which crosses the
distal articulation transversely. Cr or SC

Femur; Physiological length (2) ; as taken with the osteometric board,
and with the two condyles in contact with the transverse plane. OB.

Tibia; Physiological length (3); from the deepest point in the arti-
cular surface of the medial condyle to the deepest point in the distal
articular surface just within the medial malleolus. Cr or SC.

The following indices are in common use :-

, . , T . , radius length X 100

1 Radio-humeral index ? -, rr

humerus length

This is an old index, formerly much used notably by Broca in 1862,
and by Turner in 1886. In both cases the greatest lengths were used,
and the arms (radii) were classified as follows :

Index below 75 brachycercic

75 to 79 mesaticercic (mesocercic)

Index above 79 dolichocercic

Europeans, Lapps, Eskimo, and Bushmen are brachycercic; Australians,
Negroes, Hindu, Chinese, and American Indians, except Fuegians, are
mesocercic; Andamanese, Negritoes, and Fuegians, are doliehocercic.

o m-i- f t j tibial length X 100

2 Tibio-femoral index ^

femoral length

This index corresponds exactly to the previous one, being for the leg
what that is for the arm, i.e., a proportionate measure for the distal
joint.

These indices are classified into two groups by the boundary number 83,
all indices below this being brachycnemic; all above it dolichocnemic.
To the first belong the Europeans, Chinese, Tatars, Lapps, and Eskimo;
to the latter the Australians, Negroes, Andamanese, and American
Indians.

, T . , length of humerus + radius X 100

3 Intermembral index - -r T~i ~Tn^

length of femur + tibia

For this, both Turner (1886) and Martin (1893) used the maximum
lengths of all the bones concerned, as ascertained by the osteometric
board, but the differences between these results and those obtained by
the more exact physiological lengths are but slight, and the data thus
obtained may be considered as practically correct. For comparisons
involving both bones and the living, however, the physiological lengths
should be used, as the two may then be closely compared, or even used
interchangeably. The most important results of the two investigators
10

146

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

mentioned are as follows, remembering that, unless there is much dis-
parity in leg-length, a low index means a short arm, and vice versa.

Name of race

males

females

both together

Australians (T) .

approx. 68

Australians (M) . . . .

68.7

Negroes (M)

68.3

68.1

68.2

Negroes (T)

69.0

Andamanese (T)

69.0

Fuegians (M

69.4

70.8

70.1*

Europeans (Alsace) (M)

70 4

69.3

69.7

* The total length in millimeters of Fuegian limbs (bones) averaged at 758 mm.
for males, and 709 mm. for females, according to Martin. These were taken from a
large number of individual bones.

length of humerus X 100
4. Humero-femoral index - T .-^

length of femur

This comparison gives the relative length of the humerus, when compared
with the thigh. Martin gives the following values:-

Name of race

males

females

both sexes

Fuegians

69.8

72.9

71.3

Negroes

72.4

71.8

72.2

Europeans, Alsace

69.0

68.8

68.9

The indices that follow have been seldom used, and some of them may
even have never been practically employed. They are placed here
mainly to show some of the many possible combinations, since any one of
these or similar ones may at any time be found to clearly present a certain
new relationship. To guard against an excessive employment of indices,
one should always have in mind exactly what real relationship a given
index is intended to show, and never use one (in published writings)
merely for the reason that it has never been employed before.

5. Tibio-radial index

length of radius X 100

length of tibia

. , length of humerus X 100
6. Humero-skelic index , rr~ ... . -

lengths of femur -f- tibia

length of radius X 100

7. Radio-skelic index

lengths of femur + tibia

length of femur X 100
r emero-bracnial index ,

9. Tibio-brachial index

lengths of humerus + radius

length of tibia X 100
lengths of humerus + radius

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 147

Relation of the Lengths of Limb-bones to The Total Stature of the
Same Individual, when Living

The relationship of the lengths of the long bones to the stature of the
individual, if possible to establish, would be a priori of immense import-
ance in the constantly recurring problem of estimating the height, during
life, of individuals known only be excavated bones. This is a ways
the first question of people in general, who happen to be present when
excavations are going on, and it is a curious fact in popular psychology
that heights calculated by unprofessional people are always excessive,
sometimes ridiculously so. It would seem of much practical utility,
then, to ascertain through a series of measurements the usual ratios of
the separate long bone lengths to the total height, thus obtaining a
coefficient, by which a given long bone may be measured to get the ex-
pected, or usual, bodily stature.

With such a purpose in mind Rollet, in 1889, took the total height
measures of a series of dead bodies, 24 males and 25 females, between the
ages of 20 and 65, in order to eliminate both senile and infantile propor-
tions, after which he had the bones prepared and available for measure-
ment. His results he formulated as follows:

Male. Femur (greatest length) multiplied by 3.66 = Total height
Female. Femur (greatest length) multiplied by 3.71 = Total height
Male. Humerus (greatest length) multiplied by 5.6 = Total height
Female. Humerus (greatest length) multiplied by 5.22 = Total height

These figures were, however, reliable only for people of about the
medium height, 1650 mm. also, owing to the well-known differences of
proportions in different human races, these coefficients would apply with
any certainty only to Frenchmen, or at best to members of the white
race.

The necessity of a sliding scale of coefficients for different sizes
of individuals was taken into account later of by Manouvrier (1892)
who calculated a series of different coefficients for bones of different
sizes. Thus, for male femora, instead of using as coefficient the single
"3.66" of Rollet, he used for a femur of 422 mm, the coefficient 3.85,
for one of 446 mm, a coefficient of 3.73, and for one of 475 mm. a coefficient
of 3.61, and so on.* He finally represented a set of coefficients for lengths
of every few millimeters for the six long limb bones in each sex, and
worked out the resultant stature in each case, from which a desired
stature may be easily obtained. His table is as follows:

* MANOTJVRIER: Le determination de la taille apres les grands os des membres'.
Mem. de la Soc. d'Anthropol. de Paris. 1893.

148

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

MALES

Fibula
mm.

Tibia
mm.

Femur
mm.

Humerus
mm.

Radius
mm.

Ulna
mm.

Total height
mm.

318

319

392

295

213

227

1.53.0

323

324

398

298

216

231

1.55.2

328

330

404

302

219

235

1.57.1

333

335

410

306

222

239

1.59.0

338

340

416

309

225

243

1.60.5

344

346

422

313

229

246

1.62.5

349

351

428

316

232

249

1.63.4

353

357

434

320

236

253

1.64.4

358

362

440

324

239

257

1.65.4

363

368

446

328

243

260

1.66.6

368

373

453

332

246

263

1.67.7

373

378

460

336

249

266

1.68.6

378

383

467

340

252

270

1.69.7

383

389

475

344

255

273

1.71.6

388

394

482

348

258

276

1.73.0

393

400

490

352

261

280

1.75.4

398

405

497

356

264

283

1.76.7

403

410

504

360

267

287

1.78.5

408

415

512

364

270

290

1.81.2

413

420

519

368

273

293

1.83.0

FEMALES

Fibula

mm.

Tibia
mm.

Femur
mm.

Humerus
mm

Radius
mm.

Ulna
mm. i

Total height
mm.

283

284

363

263

193

203

1.40.0

288

289

368

266

195

206

1.42.0

293

294

373

. 270

197

209

1.44.0

298

299

378

273

199

212

1.45.5

303

304

383

276

201

215

307

309

388

279

203

217

1.48.8

311

314

393

282

205

219

1.49.7

316

319

398

285

207

222

1.51.3

320

324

403

289

209

225

1.52.8

325

329

408

292

211

228

1.54.3

330

334

415

297

214

231

1.55.6

336

340

422

302

218

235

1.56.8

341

346

429

307

222

239

1.58.2

346

352

436

313

226

243

1.59.5

351

358

443

318

230

247

1.61.2

356

364

450

324

234

251

1.63.0

361

370

457

329

238

254

1.65.0

366

376

464

334

242

258

1.67.0

To use this Table the following rules are to be observed:

1. Determine the sex of the skeleton, if possible.

2. Take the length measurements of the six long bones given in the
Table, or of as many of them as are in good condition. The femur is

OSTEOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BONES 149

measured "in the oblique position", i.e., physiological length; the tibia
uses the medial condyle at the proximal end, but includes the entire
malleolus distally, a departure from the rule laid down above; the other
bones are used in greatest length.

3. If the bones are dry, and deprived of cartilage, add 2 mm. to the
length measurement of each bone.

4. Find the nearest length for each bone separately, and set down the
total stature expected. Lengths that fall in between those given will
furnish their total stature through a simple calculation.

5. The series of total statures thus obtained should be averaged up in
the usual way, by adding all together and dividing by the number of
bones used. The resulting average is that of the cadaveral height.

6. The living height is considered to be 20 mm., less than the cadaveral
height.

7. If you have the corresponding bones of the two sides, measure
both, and use the average of the two for the measurement. If you possess
the radius and tibia, the ulna and fibula need not be measured.

Although the values of this Table have been deduced from French
bodies, and may not be wholly applicable beyond the confines of these
and related peoples, still the work of Rahon* who applied them to a very
large number of ancient men, in part absolutely prehistoric, possesses
considerable interest. Some of his results follow:

Neandertal skeleton 1613

Spy skeletons 1590

Skeleton, La Madelaine 1665

Old man of Cro Magnon 1716

Mentone skeleton, 1732

Dolmen of "Cave-aux Fees" males, 1600; females, 1470

Dolmen of "Bray-sur Seine males, 1600; females, 1492

Merovingian Period, one skeleton of

of each sex males, 1771; females, 1579

Burgundians, 5th. Century males, 1646; females, 1518

Carolingian Period males, 1674; females, 1585

In all these the height given is that for the living. It is to be noted
that the two first are now accredited to a distinct species, making their
inclusion within this table quite inapplicable. The rest seem fairly
reliable.

* RAHON, J. ; La taille d'apr6s les ossements prdhistoriques. Rev. EC. Anthropol.
T. 2, p. 234 +. 1892.

Recherches sur les ossements humains anciens et prehistoriques en vue de la
reconstitution de la taille. Mem. Soc. Anthropol. Paris, Series 2. T. 4, pp.
403 + 1893.

PART II

Somatometry; the Measurement of the Body

LANDMARKS

[The list here given is taken from Martin (Lehrbuch, 1914, pp. 120-131) but those
of the head and face are given first, and the arrangement is alphabetical instead of
topographical. The abbreviations are the same, and as they do not repeat any of
those in use upon the skeleton, save in those cases where the two correspond, it is
hoped that they will come into common use, much as in the case of the abbreviations
of the elements in Chemistry].

(a) Landmarks upon the head and face.

The most external point on the wing of the nose.

Outer corner of the mouth; lateral terminus of the oral
slit. .

Outer corner of the palpebral opening.

Inner corner of the palpebral opening, medial to the

caruncula lacrimalis.

alare (al)
bregma (b)
cheilion (ch).

crinion (see trichion)
ectocanthion (ex)
endocanthion (en)

euryon (eu)

f rontotemporale . (ft)

glabella(g)

gnathion (gn)

gonion (go)

inion (i)

labrale inferius (li)

labrale superius (Is) *

mastoidale (ms)
mesosternale (mst)

*(here taken as the occipital protuberance).

The median point in the lower boundary of the mucous

surface of the lower lip.

The median point of a line drawn across the boundary of

the mucous surface of the upper lip. tangent to the

curves.

The point in the sternal median line crossed by the
transverse line connecting the middle of the two 4th
costal cartilages, at the insertion into the sternum. The
determination of this cartilage is facilitated by first lo-
cating the 2d, which noticeably projects a little above the
others.

* Points followed by an * are the same as those of like name upon the bony surface
of the skull, save that here the point designated is upon the external surface of the
skin, exactly above the one on the skull, and differs from this latter by the thickness
of the soft parts. When used as the termini of lines parallel to the surface, the meas-
uements of both skull and face are the same, when the thickness of the soft parts
is included in the line measured, the two measurements differ by this amount. Thus,
compare the least frontal breadth, where the measurements of skull and face are the
same, with the greatest head breadth, where the breadth in the living includes the
soft parts upon each end of the line, and is larger by so much than in the skull.

151

152

metopion (m)

nasion (n)
ophryon (on)

opisthocranion (op)
orbitale (or)
otobasion inferius (obi)

otobasion superius (obs)

postaurale (pa)
preaurale (pra)

pronasale (prn)
prosthion (pr)

stomion (sto)
subaurale (sba)
subnasale (sn)

superaurale (sa)
tragion (t)
trichion (tr)

tuberculare (tu)
vertex (v)

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

zygion (zy)

acromioji (a)

The median point of the line connecting the two frontal

eminences.

Median point of the line drawn tangent to the upper
border of the eyebrows.

Point where the ear attaches to the side of the head,
above.

Point where the" ear attaches to the side of the head,
below.

The most posterior point in the free margin of the ear.
The point in the line connecting the two otobasia, and
crossing the isthmus of attachment of the ear to the
head, which is directly opposite the postaurale. This
line is at right angles to the ear length line.
The point of the nose.

"Owing to the gum this point lies about 1 mm. lower
than on the bare skull.

Median point of the oral slit, when mouth is closed
naturally.

The lowest point in the free margin of the ear. This is
also the lowest point of the lobe.

Point of the angle between the septum and the surface of
the upper lip.

The highest point in the free margin of the ear.
The notch just above the tragus of the ear.
The median point in the line of the hair. To be used
only when the area covered by the hair is normal; not
to be used when the hair has begun to retreat in incipient
baldness.

Darwin's point on the ear.

Highest point of the head, when standing erect, or sit-
ting as straight as possible.

acropodion (ap)
cervicale (c)

(6) Landmarks upon the trunk and limbs

The most lateral point of the acromion process, felt
through the skin; found by tracing along the spine of the
scapula, with index and middle fingers, or by following
the shaft of the clavicle, or by laying the middle finger
across the shoulder at the top, and gradually down over
the side until it drops over the edge of the bone. This
is a difficult point to learn to find, and should be practiced
in connection with an articulated skeleton. One should
first become familiar with all the superficial parts of
scapula, clavicle and proximal end of humerus, and
learn to locate and recognize them in the living by pal-
pation, in the various positions assumed.
The most forward projecting point of the foot whether,
upon the first or second toe.

Free end of the spine of the seventh cervical vertebra;
the vertebra prominens.

SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY

153

dactylion (da)
iliocristale (ic)

iliospinale anterius (is)

iliospinale posterius (is.p)
labiomentale (lab.m)

lumbale Qu)

mesosternale (mst)

metacarpale laterale (ml)
metacarpale mediale (mm)

metatarsale laterale (mt.l)
metatarsale mediale (mt.m)

omphalion (om)
phalangion (ph)

pternion (pte)

The distal point of a finger, designated as da I; da II;
etc. When not specified, the one referred to is the point
of the middle finger, da III, which is used in the series o
distances from the floor. As thus used the arm hangs
at the side in the most natural position.
The most lateral point of the iliac crest; feel from below
upwards with the fingers laid flat and horizontal (when
the subject is standing), and parallel to the crest. The
point sought is found where the surface of the bone
passes over from the side to the top of the crest.
This is the anterior ventral spine of the crest of the ilium
(old terminology; anterior superior spine) and is best
found by placing the finger along the crest and feeling
for it with the thumb.

This is the anterior dorsal spine (posterior superior) at
the dorsal end of the crest.

Median point in the transverse groove in the chin at the
point where the lower lip is attached, the sulcus labio-
mentalis.

Find about as in the previous case. It is usually char-
acterized upon the surface by the presence of a little
dimple.

The point of the spinous process of the fifth lumbar
vertebra. This is difficult to locate and some anthro-
pometrists do not use it because of this. Others recom-
mend counting (and perhaps marking all the spines from
the seventh cervical down, with the body bowed for-
wards. The lumbale can be marked when in this bowed
position, and the point will then be present after the
body is erect again.

The median point, on the sternum, of the line which
connects the sterno-costal articulation of the two 4th
ribs. The cartilages are to be counted by running the
finger down the sides of the sternum, where they are
superficial. Corresponding to the break between the
manubrium and the mesoternum, where the 2nd costal
cartilages are inserted, these cartilages project forwards
a little, projecting beyond their neighbors. The second
pair below this is the one sought.

The most projecting point on the free outer margin of
the hand, at the level of the basal joint (metacarpo-
phalangeal articulation) of the little finger.
The most projecting point on the free inner margin of
the hand, at the level of the basal joint (metacarpo-
phalangeal articulation) of the index.
The most laterally projecting point of the metatarso-
phalangeal articulation of the little toe.
The most medially projecting point of the metatarso-
phalangeal articulation of the great toe (hattux).
Middle point of the umbilicus; an unstable point.
The most proximal point of the basal phalanx of a finger;
designated as I, II, III, etc.

The most posterior point of the heel, when the foot is
sustaining the weight of the body

154

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

radiale (r)

spherion (sph)
stylion (sty)

suprasternale (sst)

symphysion (sy)

thelion (th)
tibiale (ti)

trochanterion (tro)

The plane of the top of the capitellum of the radius.
In the hanging arm it is found in the bottom of the con-
spicuous groove or dimple of the elbow.
The lowest point of the inner malleolus.
The distal margin of the styloid process of the radius
where it appears superficially upon the medial side of the
wrist. In the hanging arm seize the wrist and palpate
downwards over the surface of the process with the
thumb. The exact end of the process may be felt with
the thumb nail.

The middle of the suprasternal notch, in the upper
margin of the sternum. This margin is covered simply
by a thin layer of skin, and the point in question may be
readily located with precision.

Middle point in the upper border of the pubic arch,
at the symphysis. This is usually at about the level
of the upper border of the pubic hair, but as there is some
variation in this it is not safe to rely wholly upon this
when precision is wanted. Involuntary shrinking on
the part of the subject, due to the tickling reactions, are
obviated entirely by approaching the point from the side
with the flat of the hand, and using the end of the finger
only when the upper border of the pubic arch is reached.
With intelligent subjects they may often be entrusted to
find the proper point themselves, especially when an
articulated skeleton stands beside the operator and
subject, a condition which should never be neglected.
This point is of vital importance in all studies of pro-
portions, and ought always to be taken, and with as great
precision as is practical.

The middle point of the nipple. To be taken only
in men, children, and in women with no perceptible
tendency for the breasts to sag downwards.
The medial separation between femur and tibia, at
the medial glenoid margin of the latter; the point is
difficult to find in persons with strongly developed
panniculus adiposus in the knee region. To find this,
place thumb and forefinger of the right hand upon the
quadriceps tendon (ligamentum patellae), ask the subject
to slightly flex the knee, and then slip the forefinger
over to the side, and explore with the finger nail for
the separation between the bones. This may be marked
when found, for reference in other positions of the leg.
A point of some uncertainty and never vary precise.
It is defined as the highest point upon the trochanter
major, but in practice some use the most lateral point,
thus making the bitrochanteric breadth a synonym of
the greatest breadth across the thighs, with the heels
together. Others reach the bone surface from behind,
where the adhesion of the integument to the subcutane-
ous bone surface form a deep and noticeable hollow.
To find the more precise point, as defined, the hand is
placed nearly flat upon the region where the bone lies
subcutaneous, and request the subject to move the leg

SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 155

laterally, to bow the body forward, and to make other
motions which concern either the femur or the adjacent
parts. The shape of the process, and the position of its
highest point may thus be located with a fair degree of
accuracy.

MEASUREMENTS
(a) General Considerations; Position of Subject

In all measurements or other observations of the living subject
it must first be emphasized that one is engaged in the study of the in-
dividual bodily variations of an animal species, and that, in order to
obtain satisfactory results, the subjects, wherever possible, should be
studied in the nude. When for various reasons this is not practicable,
however, it will be found that the use of some slight covering does not
materially interfere with the measurements, although it may be fatal to a
number of other important observations which are conveniently made
at the time of the mensuration. Thus it has been found that in a mixed
class, or with observer and subject of opposite sex, the use of a simple
bathing-suit allows the majority of the measurements to be taken with
considerable accuracy, especially when the material of which the suit
is constructed is of a sort which yields with the underlying surface, and
does not restrain or confine in any way any part of the body.

As to the position of the subject when measured, opinions differ,
the usual choice lying between two; (a) standing erect, and (6) placed in
a horizontal position upon a measuring table. In the first the subject
hands as erect as possible, with the heels together and with the arms and
stands hanging at the sides; the "military position." If, when in this
position, the exact heights above the floor of certain essential landmarks
be taken, many essential measurements may be obtained through the
subtraction of these numbers from one another, thus finding the dif-
ferences between them. To be exact, however, both the numbers
indicating heights, and the lengths obtained from them are really pro-
jections, and concern, not actual points, but the horizontal planes in
which the points lie.

To illustrate; if, in a naturally hanging arm, with hand extended
downward, the distance of the floor from the points acromion, radiale,
stylion, and dactylion be accurately taken, the subtraction of the radiale
height from that of the acromion, will give the height of the upper arm,
that of the stylion height from the radial height gives the length of the
forearm (i.e., of the radius) ; and that of the dactylion height from that
of the stylion will give the length of the hand. The total length of arm
and hand is obtained by subtracting the dactylion height from that of
the acromion, and so on It will be noticed, however, as these heights
are each that of horizontal plane passing through the landmark in ques-

156 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

tion hat the lengths obtained by subtraction are the actual perpendicular
distances between the two planes considered; and that, in case a bone
hangs in the body a little obliquely, its actual length will exceed by a
little its projected length, or that obtained by the subtraction of heights.
To give another example, take the distance in height between any lateral
point and a median one, as, for instance, thelion and omphalion. The
height of either of these, as taken, means the height of a horizontal
plane through which the point in question passes, and the difference in
height obtained by subtraction means the perpendicular distance between
the two planes, that of thelion and that of the omphalion. In actually
measuring the straight distance from one of these points to the other we
are dealing with an oblique line, which has nothing necessarily to do
with the horizontal plane of either point.

Aside from dealing with projections, which is the really scientific
method of dealing with relative heights, the use of these projected heights
has the decided advantage of saving much time,' important alike to
subject and operator. It is easily possible to run through the usual
list of heights (about 25) within a very few minutes, after which many
other measurements, such as the lengths of separate parts of the limbs
or the projected distance between trunk landmarks, may be readily
calculated in the study.

In the other types of measurement, such as breadths, or girths, the
standing position of the subject is extremely convenient, with the possible
exception of the few that concern that portion of the figure below the
knee, where some stooping is required on the part of the operator, but
this is quite inconsiderable, as there is but a small number of such data
to be obtained.

For measuring the body in the horizontal position the only absolute
essential is a horizontal table six feet or a little more in length, and two and
a half feet in breadth, upon which the subject may be placed upon the
back. To admit a little comfort a slight pillow is admissable, care being
taken that it does not materially change the position of neck or head.

To these simple essentials many improvements may be added, for
the comfort of either operator or subject, or both. For example, the
board may be crossed by transverse lines in black painted and graded
to serve as an anthropometer; or, by means of some simple staging, the
metal rod of the regular anthropometer may be suspended horizontally
above the subject, while one of the cross-bars, slipping back and forth
upon the graded rod, marks the points desired with precision. Frassetto,
the anthropologist of Bologna, one of the chief advocates of this position,
has a table that swings upon a strong steel cross bar, which runs across
the middle of the table. The subject takes his position when the table is
set upright on the floor, with his feet standing upon the transversely
placed board at the lower end, and with his back touching the table top.
When this is done the table is swung slowly into the horizontal position

SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY

157

by some such mechanisms as are used in the chairs of dentists and barbers,
and the subject is ready to be measured.

Concerning the relative advantages of the two positions, they may be
set forth as follows :

Erect position

1. A rigidly erect position is hard to main-
tain; a fatigued subject frequently
shrugs the shoulders and sways at the
hips, thus constantly making differ-
ences of a centimeter or more in some
of the longer measurements.

2. [No counter argument].

3. [No counter argument].

4. [No counter argument].

Recumbent position

The ease with which a body lies on the
back insures a much quieter and more
motionless position than in a standing
subject. This allows more accurate
measurement.

Children, and even babies, may be
measured in a recumbent position where
an erect and motionless position is
impossible.

The dead body may be measured in
the recumbent position, and, allow-
ing for a certain amount of relaxation,
the data thus obtained may be directly
compared with those from the living.
The bodies of apes and monkeys, as in
the case of dead bodies, can be directly
compared with data obtained from the
living, when measured in the recumbent
position, while, if the living are measured
erect, no comparison is possible.
[No counter argument].

5. Primitive and superstitious people,
who often object to any form of meas-
urement, still often allow more or less
of it, when allowed to stand erect. It
would usually prove quite impossible
to place them on their back for any
form of measurement or other investi-
gation, as this position would be felt
by them to be a position of defence-
lessness or of actual dishonor.

As a purely academic question the arguments seem about equally bal-
anced, with possibly a little more weight upon the side of the horizontal
position, yet, the arguments against this position and in favor of a stand-
ing subject are so cogent from a practical standpoint (cf. argument 5),
that at the International Congress of 1912 at Geneva the standing position
was adopted as a part of the prescription. At this time the general
principles adopted were the following:

(a) For measurements upon the living the standing position is

adopted.
(6) The method of projections is adopted, save in cases where

special mention is made of some other way.
(c) For paired measurements it is recommended that the work be

158 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

done upon the left side, but that the measurements of both
sides be taken in the cases of the acromial and trochanteric
heights above the ground.

(d) Observers are requested to always carefully indicate their
methods and their instrumentation.

(e) It is very strongly recommended to all persons wishing to do
any anthropometric work not to be content with a theoretical
study of the principles of mensuration, but to learn them
practically in one of the different laboratories in which they
are taught.*

A certain number of prescriptions for the measurement of the living
head (some 19) was included in the prescription of 1906, at Monaco,
which form the basis of all later proposals. Certain measurements of
the trunk and limbs were decided upon during the session of 1912, at
Geneva, and are equally fundamental. In the list which follows, and
which includes, not only the measurements of the two original lists, but
others that have received general approval since then, the former are
marked *by an asterisk. These lists, in their original form, may be found
as follows :

1. Skulls and living heads, Monaco 1906.

French; L'Anthropologie, T. 17, 1906, pp. 559-572; reported by

Papillault.

English; Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. reported by Duckworth.
II. Trunk and limbs of the living, Geneva, 1912.

French; L'Anthropologie, T. 23. 1912, pp. 623-627, reported by

Rivet.
Italian; Rivista di Antropologia, 1912, Vol. XXII Fasc. III.

pp. 1-15 reported by Frassetto.

German; Korrespondenzbl. der Deutschen Anthropol. Gesell.
1913, Jahrg. XLIV, No. 1. Publ. in Archiv fur Anthropolo-
gie; reported by Schlaginhaufen.

English; Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. reported by Duckworth.
(6) Lists of Usual Measurements

A. ON THE HEAD

1. Linear measurements.

1. Maximum head length (g-op)

2. Glabella-inion length (g-i)

3. Maximum head-breadth (eu-eu)

4. Least frontal breadth (ft-ft)

5. Bizygomatic breadth (zy-zy)

6. Bigonial breadth (go-go)

* The italics are those, of the present author; the translation is free, after the
French version (L'Anthropologie, T. 23, 1912, pp. 623-627, by RIVET).

SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 159

7. -Biauricular breadth (t-t)

8. Bimastoid (ms ms)

9. Biocular breadth (ex-ex)

10. Interocular breadth (en-en)

11. Interpupillary distance (with pupillometer)

12. Breadth of palpebral opening (Subtract No. 11 from No. 10)

13. Nasal breadth (al-al)

14. Oral breadth (ch-ch)

15. Auricular height (t-v); projection, i.e. difference of level between
tragion and vertex; may be done either by anthropometer as in the case
of the skull or by subtraction.

16. Height, vertex to subnasale (v-sn) by subtraction, or in projec-
tion with anthropometer.

1 7 . Physiognomic facial length (tr-gn) ; only in individuals with normal
extent of hair.

18. Morphological facial length (n-gn)

19. Physiognomic superior facial length (n-sto)

20. Morphological superior facial length (n pr)

21. Nasal length, in ground plan (n-ns); used for nasal index with 13

22. Nasal length, along profile (n-prn)

23. Nasal height, projection from face (prn-sn)

24. Frontal height, physiognomic (tr-n); only in individuals with
normal extent of hair. ;

25. Height of mucous lips (li-ls)

26. Height of entire upper lip, (sn-sto)

27. Height of entire lower lip (sto-slm)

28. Height of chin (sto-gn)

29. Physiognomic ear length (sa-sba)

30. Physiognomic ear breadth (pra-pa)

31. Morphological ear length, cf. ear of horse, sheep etc. (t-tu)

32. Morphological ear breath (obs-obi)

2. Angles.

33. Profile angle (line FH with line n-pr prolonged)

34. Camper's facial angle (line meat-sn with line on-sn)

35. Superior facial angle (line meat-pr with line meat-n)

3. Girths.

36. Horizontal circumference of the head. Put the "O" of the tape
measure at the glabella with the left hand, lay tape with the right hand
along the left side of the head over what appears to be the opisthocranion
and thence around to point of beginning. Shift until correct, with the
tape placed horizontally and drawn over the opisthocranion.

37. Sagittal arc; with the tape, from nasion, over top of head, to
inion, in the median plane. This does not quite correspond to the like-

160 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

named measurement on the skull, as in the latter the posterior terminus
of this arc is on the opisthion.

38. Transverse arc; from tragion to tragion, over the vertex.

B. ON THE TRUNK AND LIMBS.

1. Height from floor (Projections)

1. Ht. vertex (total stature)

2. Ht. tragus

3. Ht. gnathion (eyes looking straight ahead).

4. Ht. suprasternale

5. Ht. thelion (not taken in women with hanging breasts)

6. Ht. mesosternale

7. Ht. omphalion

8. Ht. symphysion

9. Ht. iliocristale

10. Ht. iliospinale

11. Ht. vertebrale

12. Ht. lumbale

13. Ht. acromion

14. Ht. radiale

15. Ht. stylion

16. Ht. dactylion

17. Ht. trochanterion

18. Ht. tibiale

19. Ht. spherion

2. Sitting height; from plane of seat.

[For these the subject should be seated upon a low, level table, where
the foot of the anthropometer should also rest. If the feet be placed
upon a rather high chair, thus lifting the dorsal muscles of the thigh from
contact with the table, they cannot be used by the subject in lifting the
body, while it rests directly upon the sciatic tubers (ischiadic tuberos-
ities), here quite subcutaneous]

20. S. Ht. vertex (This gives the trunk length between vertex and
the lowest point of the pelvic girdle).

21. S. Ht. tragus (This gives the trunk length from the first vertebra,
as the tragus level is practically the same as that of the occipital condyles,
or the plane tangent with the upper projections of the atlas. (The sub-
ject must look straight ahead, as in Measurement 3, and some others).

22. S. Ht. suprasternale (This gives the trunk height from the
anterior end of the sternum, a point often used).

23. S. Ht. vertebrale.

24. S. Ht. iliocristale (This gives the height of the pelvic girdle).

SOMATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 161

3 Arm-stre'.ch.

25. Arm stretch (The best way to get this is to place the subject
against a wall, with arms extended horizontally, with shoulders and
dorsal aspect of the arms in contact with the wall, and with the palms
facing forwards. The extreme distance between the points of the two
middle fingers -when exerted to the utmost is the distance to be measured.
It facilitates measurement if the wall be marked in centimeters along
a horizontal area where the arms of the subject may be expected to come;
also if one middle finger tip be placed in contact with a small board
placed vertically upon the wall, the attention may be more completely
directed to the position of the other.

In default of a wall the anthropometer may be held horizontally
behind the subject, and the fingers used to push the rods apart).

4 Diameters.

26. Biacromial diameter (a-a).

27. Breadth of shoulders between the deltoids; widest place (secdary).

28. Bimammillary diameter (th-th).

29. Ilio cristal diameter; "cristal breadth" (ic-ic)

30. Iliospinal diameter; "spinal breadth" (is-is).

31. Bitrochanteric diameter; " trochanteric breadth" (tro-tro).

32. Dorso-ventral pelvic diameter (lu-sy).

33. Dorso-ventral diameter of thorax; plane I (at level of base of
ensiform cartilage).

34. Transverse diameter of thorax; Plane I.

35. Dorso-ventral diameter of thorax; Plane II (level of mesosternale).

36. Transverse diameter of thorax; Plane II.

[The four above diameters of the thorax are to be taken with the
chest midway between a full inspiration and an expiration.]

37. Bicondylar diameter at elbow (secondary).

38. Bistyloid diameter at wrist (secondary).

39. Bicondylar diameter at knee (secondary).

40. Bimalleolar diameter at ankle (secondary).

5 Girths

41. Girth of neck, across larynx.

42. Girth of thorax, Plane I; (quiet breathing, midway between
inspiration and expiration).

43. Girth of thorax; Plane II; (quiet breathing. Lift arms to shoulder
height, and place tape around chest, well up in the axillae, at level of
mesosternale; then let arms drop, while tape is held in place by the
operator. Let subject continue quite breathing, and take the middle
point shown by the tape between the extremes).

44. Girth at waist, least girth of body.

45. Girth of upper arm, greatest when relaxed.
11

162 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

46. Girth across contracted biceps.

47. Girth of forearm, greatest.

48. Girth of wrist, least.

49. Girth of thigh, greatest (in or about the gluteal fold).

50. Girth of thigh, middle.

51. Girth of thigh, least (just above knee).

52. Girth of calf

53. Girth of ankle, least.

54. Contour tracing of hand (traced with a split pencil, held vertically) .

55. Length of hand (either by subtraction of No. 16 from No. 15,
or by direct measurement between stylion and dactylion).

56. Breadth of hand (mm-ml).

57. Contour of foot (as in No. 54).

58. Length of foot (burdened by weight of body), (ap-pte). This is
most conveniently taken with the osteometric board. The subject
stands upon this, with the farthest forward point (acropodion) in contact
with the fixed board which indicates O. The moveable board is then
moved up to contact with the heel (pternion).

59. Breadth of foot (burdened by weight of body), (mt.m-mt.l).

C. WEIGHT (in Kilograms).

60. Weight of body (without clothing).

As the weight without clothing is often inconvenient to obtain, the
following data on the weight of clothing [Martin, p. 152] may be found
useful. These data are taken from the dress of Central Europe, which
should be about the same as found in the United States.

I. Total weight of clothing, without hat; averages.

man, in summer 3800 grams

man, in winter 4500 grams

woman, in summer 3000 grams

woman, in winter 4000 grams

II. Percentage of clothing in the total weight (clothed) of children.

boys; 3-6 years 6%

girls; 3-6 years 7%

boys; 7-14 years 8%

girls; 4-14 years 7%

III. Average weights of certain garments.

boy's shirt 100 grams

boy's shirt and stockings 300 grams

girl's chemise and petticoat 500 grams

shoes; children of six years 200 grams

. half-shoes of older children 350 grams

boys boots 700 grams

SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 163

Measurements Obtained By Calculation From Other Measurements

(1) Trunk length

It is very important to determine upon the best of the many possible
trunk-lengths and use it exclusively and universally, since especially
it is of great importance in all comparisons with the limbs, but unfor-
tunately there are many possible trunk-lengths, and each may have
certain advantages, such as greater availability, or a better value for
comparison. The many possible limits to be set to this length, each one
with some following, are the following :

Upper limit Lower limit

Tragus Lumbale

Subnasale Symphysion

Inion Sciatic tuber

Cervicale End of coccyx
Suprasternale

For the upper limit the tragus and subnasale, in a standing figure with
'eyes forward are either of them in about the plane of the upper face of
the atlas, and thus give the upper limit of the vertebral column. The
inion is a bit higher, but is easy to locate (meaning here the occipital
protuberance). The two others, cervicale and suprasternale, are used
as the upper limit when the trunk alone is desired, counting off the cer-
vical region, as is often done. In the case of the lower limit neither
symphysion nor lumbale give the full value to the physiological trunk,
since they omit the lower part of the pelvic girdle. This latter is, mor-
phologically a part of the appendage, and thus shows certain arguments in
favor of the omission. Viewed physiologically, however, the girdle is a
part of the trunk, and thus should be included down to the plane of the
sciatic tuber or the end of the coccyx. At present this view prevails,
and the choice rests much in favor of the first. To use the plane of the
sciatic tuber for the lower limit of the trunk it is simply necessary to seat
the subject upon a table in the manner lecommended above, with the
feet supported rather high, so that no aid can be furnished from the dorsal
muscles of hip or thigh, and then take the height from the table of any
of the upper limits decided upon. Thus, selecting the suprasternale, as
here recommended if the neck is not to be included, the height of this
landmark in the seated subject is also the trunk-length. Should one wish
to include the neck, use the tragus height.

(2) Arm length

Length of entire arm and By direct measurement, By projection, by sub-
hand from acromion to dactyl- tracting ht. of dactylion

ion; arm either extended from ht. acromion.

horizontally or hanging

pendulous; hand in either

case extended so far as

possible.

164

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Length of entire arm, with- Direct; between acromion By subtracting ht. styl-

out hand

Length of upper arm
Length of forearm
Length of hand

and stylion, in extended
arm.

Direct; between acromion
and radiale.

Direct; between radiale
and stylion.

Direct; between stylion
and dactylion, hand ex-
tended.

ion from ht. acromion.

By subtracting ht. radiale
from ht. acromion.
By subtracting ht, stylion
from ht. radiale.
By subtracting ht, dac-
tylion from ht. stylion.

Limb measurements are a little longer when taken direct than when calculated by
subtraction (projection method). Thus the forearm, where the difference is the
most marked, is about 6 mm. longer by the first method, but the upper arm is longer
by only about .5 mm. The other results differ by about 3 mm.

(3) Leg length

In the leg there is no definite landmark to use as the proximal limit,
as the pelvic girdle has a different physiological relation to the body from
that of the shoulder girdle, and consequently there is no point on the
former to serve the same purpose as the acromion. It is usual to consider
the head of the femur as marking this limit, but here the difficulty is hat
this feature lies too deeply for palpation, or even approximately locating
it. One may use, however, its average relative distance from other
landmarks, and by such means several of the following rules have been
devised.

Total length of leg from head of
femur to sole; subject standing
Total length of leg without foot

Length of thigh

Length of lower leg

(o) Sub tract 40 mm. from iliospinale, or

(6) Add 35 mm. to symphysis.

Subtract ht. sphyrion from ht. iliospinale, and

from this result subtract 9% of itself.

(a) Subtract tibiale from iliospinale, and from
this result subtract 7% of itself. This corre-
sponds to the physiological length of the
femur.

(6) Take the direct measure between iliospinale
and tibiale, and from this subtract 40 mm.

Subtract ht. sphyrion from ht, tibiale.

INDICES
(a) Indices referring to certain measurements as standards.

In comparing a number of measurements together it is sometimes con-
venient to refer them all to a certain definite standard, especially if
this standard is itself one that is not very variable. For instance it
would occur to everyone to use as such a standard, the total stature,
to which other measurements, such as the lengths of arm or leg, trunk-

SOMATOMETRY; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 165

length or thoracic depth, could be referred, and through which they could
be compared with one another; the comparison would become unjust in
the case of an individual with an abnormally long neck, yet, in the major-
ity of cases, this standard would serve its purpose.

Two such standards are commonly used, and the sets of indices are the
following:

any bodily measurement X 100

I. Index a =
II. Index 6 =

total stature.

any bodily measurement X 100
trunk length (sitting height of sst).

For this latter Martin uses the distance (projected) between height of
suprasternale and the perineal height ; but as this latter point is not advo-
cated here, and is difficult to obtain, the distance sst sciatic tubers is
substituted.

(6) Convenient indices which bring out comparisons which are fre-
quently desired.

length of forearm X 100
Brachial index -

Forearm-hand index ,

length 01 torearm

hand breadth X 100
Hand index -

hand length

,.,. . ,. , length of lower leg X 100

Tibio-femoral index - r f ^, . ,

length of thigh

length of foot X 100

Lower leg-foot index

Intermembral index I

length of lower leg

length of entire arm X 100

length of entire leg

, . , TT length; upper arm + forearm XI 00
Intermembral index II -

length; thigh + lower leg

length of upper arm X 100
Femoro-humeral index -

length of thigh

m., . length of forearm X 100

Tibio-radial index -

length ol lower leg

. , . max. girth upper arm* X 100

Upper arm girth index -

length of upper arm

max. girth forearm X 100
Forearm girth index - ^

length of forearm

,. . max. girth forearm X 100
Arm proportion index -

max. girth upper arm*

min. girth forearm X 100
Forearm proportion index -

max. girth forearm

* with biceps muscle not contracted.

166 LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

. ,, . , max. girth of thigh X ICO
Thigh girth index - .

length of thigh

. ,, . , max. girth of lower leg X 100
Lower leg girth index - p-

length of lower leg

, . . , max. girth of lower leg X 100
Leg proportion index - r-rr , ., . ,

max. girth of thigh

min. girth of lower leg X ICO
Lower leg proportion index - = - ^

max. girth of lower leg

bimammilarv diameter X 100
Mammilo-acrormal index -

Cristo-spinal index

biacromial diameter
iliospinal diameter X 100

Acromio-cristal index

iliocristai diameter
iliocristal diameter X 100

biacromial diameter

,,, . , bitrochanteric diameter X 100
Body breadth index - =-=

biacromal diameter

transverse thoracic diameter I X 100

Thoracic index I.

Thoracic index II.

sagittal thoracic diameter I
transverse thoracic diameter II X 100

Skelic index [Manouvrier]

sagittal thoracic diameter
leg length * X 100

trunk length

hyperbrachyskeli c below 75

brachyskelic 75-80

subbrachyskelic 80-85

mesatiskelic (mesoskelic) 85-90

submakroskelic 90-95

makroskelic 95-100

hypermakroskelic 100

Constitutional index The maximum thoracic girth in centimeters +
the total weight in kilograms is to be subtracted from the total stature
in centimeters. Difference between these two numbers below

10 denotes a very strong constitution

11-15 denotes a very strong constitution

16-20 denotes a very good constitution

21-25 denotes a veiy fair constitution

26-30 denotes a very weak constitution

31-35 denotes a very weak constitution

above 36 denotes a very bad constitution

* To use the accompanying table of values it is of course necessary to use also the
measurements of the author [Manouvrier]. His leg length is that obtained by sub-
tracting the total sitting height, from the vertex to the table on which the subject is
sitting, and his trunk length is the same as the total sitting height.

SOM ATOMETRY ; THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BODY 167

This index has little if any value in individuals, but, representing an
average of many individuals of one race, it has significance concerning
the race.

,. . T . ., cube root of the weight X 100
Weight index [index ponderahs of Livi] - , . , '

total height

APPENDIX A

MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKULLS OF 93 INDIANS FROM SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND

MARIAN VERA KNIGHT, A. M. (SMITH)

From The Craniometry of the Southern New England Indians; Mem. Conn. Acad.
Sci, July 1915 from the Anthropometrical Laboratory of Smith College.

TABLE, GIVING THE RANGE OF VARIATION AND THE MEAN FOR EACH MEASURE-
MENT TAKEN FOR EACH SEX, AS FAR AS AVAILABLE.

Males

Females

Ave.

Max.

Min.

Ave.

Max.

Min.

Maximum length (g-oe)
Maximum breadth (eu-eu) .
Glabella-inion length (g-i) . .
Nasion-inion length (n-i) . . .
Frontal arc (arc n-b) . . . .

182.2
134.0
175.5
171.0
126 2

203.5*
151.0
206.5*
200.5*
142

169.0
120.0
161.0
157.0
112

175 5
132.0
164.4
160.3
123

188.0
145.0
178.0
169.0
137

1
158.0
124.0
150.0
145.0
113

-Parietal arc (arc b-1)

122 7

129.0

101

119 4

129

101

Occipital arc (arc l-o)

118.8

147.0

101.0

113 3

137

101

Frontal chord (n-b)

113.6

127.0

104.0

108

116

102

Parietal chord (b-1)

109.6

121.0

99.0

107.2

117

Occipital chord (l-o)

97 8

109

96 8

114

Total facial length (n-gn) . . .
Superior facial length (n-pr)
Orbital height (right angles
to mf-ek)

113.58
69.2

33.83

126.0
76.0

36.0

103.0
59.0

31.0

111.9
67.3

33.78

127.0
76.0

36 5

102.0
57.0

Nasal height (n-ns)

50.35

57.0

39.0

49.4

Chin height (id-gn) . .

34.1

39.0

32 5

Least frontal breadth (ft-ft)
Interfrontomalare tempora-
le (fmt-fmt)

93.2
98.0

108.0
104.0

82.0
92.0

90.0
93

99.0
100

82.0
85

Interfrontomalare orbitale
(fmo-fmo)

98.05

Interorbital breadth (la-la) .

23.6

27.0

18.0

20.8

Bizygom axillary breadth
(zm-zm)

105.9

112.0

83.0

99.3

100

Bizygomatic breadth (zy-
zv) . .

132.0

147.0

110.0

127.6

135.0

121.0

Biauricular breadth (au-au)
Orbital breadth (mf-ek)
Nasal breadth (right angles
to n-ns)

123.2
42.52

25.77

138.0
47.0

31.0 =f

104.0
39.0

21.0 =

120.3
41.56

128.0
43.0

112.0
36.0

Greatest frontal breadth . . .
Horizontal circumference
over glabella

119.1
518.1

123.0
555.0

101.0
495

111.3

497

125.0
532

99.0
461

Horizontal circumference
over ophvron

511.1

546.0

490

492 5

523

456

Transverse circumference. .
Basal facial length (n-ba) . . .

324.6
102.3

370.0

301.0

312.6
97.5

337

270.0

Cranial height (ba-b) . . . .

136.1

133 2

*The maximum measurements for males are much increased, especially in length
measures of the cranium by including a single skull of huge proportions which come
from a cemetery in Warren, R. I. If this had not been included, the three measures
here indicated would have been, respectively, 198, 190, and 194.

t ( = ) Measurements thus given are without separation of the two sexes.

169

170

LABOEATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

TABLE, GIVING THE RANGE OP VARIATION AND THE MEAN FOR EACH MEASURE-
MENT TAKEN FOR EACH SEX, AS FAR AS AVAILABLE. Continued.

Males

Females

Ave.

Max.

Min.

Ave.

Max.

Min.

Basion-gnathion length (ba-
en) . .

114.1

110.5

Basion-opisthion (ba-o) ....
Breadth; occip. for (at right
angles to ba-o)

36.0
30.7

42.0
35.0

32.0
22.0

36.5
30.76

40.0
33.0

32.0
22

Total sagittal arc (arc n-o) .
Bimastoid breadth (ms-ms)
Maxillo-alveolar length. . . .
Maxillo-alveolar breadth. . .
Palatal length

368.7
105.5
53.36
61.39
46.11

398.0
124.0
60*.
72.0
51.0

336.0
90.0
46.0
53.0
43.0

357.0
99.4
51.8
69.62
45.5

383.0
106.0
57.0
67.0
52.0

330.0
88.0
42.0
44.0
37

Palatal breadth

36.5

45.0

32.0

38.0

45.0

Auricular height

115.4

129.0

92.0

113.5

124.0

109

Condylar breadth

115.5

138.0

84.0

113.2

124

102

Bigonial breadth (go-go) . . .
Length of ramus

93.5

58.7

116.0
74.0

80.0
51.0

98.0
55.0

104.0
66

87.0
44

Least breadth of ramus ....
Length-breadth

35.5
73.63

41.0
81.5

29.0
63.4

33.8
75.43

39.0

84 4

28.0
67

Length-height

74.73

81.67

64.36

75.90

84 12

65 57

Breadth-height

101.49

100.76

Length-auric, height

63.19

65.14

Transverse frontal

78.15

89.91

73.17

81.08

87 88

Transverse f ronto-parietal . .

69.40

78.26 =

60.54 =

68.18

Sagittal f ronto-par (arcs) . . .

97.62

96.75

Sagittal frontal ; arc to chore

90 48

88 62

Sagittal parietal ; arc to chord

89 43

89 92

Sagittal occipital; arc to
chord

82.35

85.84

Total facial

84.33

87.84

Superior facial

52.27

52 34

Nasal

52.0

66.0 =

39 =

51 02

Orbital

80.95

92.0 =

74 =

80 49

Interorbital

23.47

24.70

Maxillo-alveolar

115.09

134.62

Palatal

78.26

107.14 =

65 31

84 44

Cranio-facial; bizygomatic
breadth by cranial breadth

98.51

109.2 =

85.71 =

96.97

Fronto-biorbital

94.90

96 77

Fronto-malar; least frontal
breadth by bizygomatic . .

70.45

76.23 =

64.49 =

70.31

Malar-mandibular; bigonial
to bizygomatic breadths

70.45

76.56

Fronto-parietal (chords) . . .

95.61

111.0 =

80.0 =

98.17

APPENDIX B

BODILY MEASUREMENTS OF 100 SMITH COLLEGE STUDENTS (FEMALE) TAKEN
BY MARGARET WASHINGTON, A. M. (SMITH)

No.

Ancestry

Age

Total
Height

Arm-
stretch

Ht.
Tragus

Ht. Vert,
prom.

Dutch, Ger

1738

1760

1599

1504

Welch, Norm

1654

1683

1533

1420

Ene. . .

1655

1662

1513

1404

Jewish (Russ.)

1510

1540

1393

1289

Ene-, Ir. . .

1543

1551

1400

1302

Enc. . .

1667

1688

1539

1431

Ene. .

1636

1677

1515

1426

Ene. . .

1635

1621

1502

1382

Dutch, Scot

1589

1584

1463

1339

Scot., Ir

1694

1743

1551

1430

Ene. . .

1614

1663

1489

1383

Ene. . .

1747

1764

1606

1486

Scot., Ir

1757

1745

1625

1502

Eru.. Ir. .

1662

1659

1538

1429

Ger., FT

1631

1668

1520

1400

Eng., Dutch

1564

1560

1440

1310

Ene. . .

1674

1672

1521

1407

Eng. . .

1698

1760

1554

1450

Ene. . .

1525

1509

1405

1286

Eng., Ir.. .

1555

1600

1422

1315

Scot., Ir

1647

1680

1502

1386

Eng., Dutch

1662

1715

1540

1412

Jr.. Dutch

1649

1620

1519

1402

Eng. . .

1637

1614

1513

1400

Ene. . .

1593

1569

1473

?367

Ene. . .

1695

1729

1574

1452

Eng., Scot

1720

1743

1593

1469

Eng., Dutch

1627

1615

1499

1394

Scot., Ir., Ger

1556

1577

1432

1321

Ene. . .

1642

1651

1509

1390

Scot., Dutch

1504

1509

1396

1274

1684

1755

1552

1456

Ene..

1654

1687

1524

1422

Ene. . .

1630

1563

1505

1379

Ene. . .

1556

1552

1424

1323

171

172

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

No.

Ancestry

Age

Total
Height

Arm-
stretch

Ht.
Tragus

Ht. Vert,
prom.

Eng., Fr...

1562

1623

1445

1322

Ene.

1668

1624

1538

1436

Ger

1598

1609

1476

1386

Eng., Scot

1624

1553

1483

1380

Eng. . .

1606

1655

1459

1374

Eng. . ,

1609

1685

1509

1386

Scot., Ir.

1714

1727

1580

1454

Eng., Scot., Ir. . ...

1610

1597

1478

1380

Eng., Scot., Ir

1657

1708

1523

1404

Ger

1600

1605

1476

1361

Eng. . .

1651

1630

1512

1417

Ger.. Ital

1571

1588

1446

1347

Eng.

1696

1655

1571

1460

Eng., Soct

1696

1700

1552

1461

Jewish (Ger., Rus.)

1621

1650

1480

1400

Eng. . .

1590

1563

1462

1365

Eng. .

1620

1641

1495

1390

Enc.

1688

1664

1548

1430

Engr

1634

1599

1523

1405

Em*.

170S

1792

1587

1464

Eng. . .

1648

1676

1510

1384

Enc.

1759

1728

1627

1515

Jewish (Rus.)

1545

1540

1423

1328

Ger., Fr...

1697

1644

1568

1453

Enc..

1636

1676

1511

1409

Enn. . .

1574

1568

1443

1342

Enc. .

1680

1700

1555

1433

Scot., Ir. .

1601

1581

1492

1371

Ger

1669

1621

1521

1431

Ger

1668

1631

1522

1433

Ene. . .

1594

1653

1479

1376

Eng. .

1645

1730

1532

1400

Eng., Scot

1609

1658

1470

1373

Eng., Fr., Ger

1679

1673

1540

1430

Enec. . .

1685

1673

1558

1441

Eng., Ger

1597

1542

1470

1372

Eng., Dutch

1636

1655

1495

1398

Eng., Ger

1684

1640

1568

1450

Eng., Scot

1650

1610

1523

1405

Eng

1638

1710

1518

1414

APPENDIX

173

Xo.

Ancestry

Age

Total
Height

Arm-
stretch

Ht.
Tragus

Ht. Vert,
prom.

Eng. . .

1663

1670

1532

1413

Eng., Fr.

1563

1564

1455

1350

Scot., Ir

1548

1593

1435

1323

Eng. . .

1674

1625

1555

1432

Eng.

1696

1765

1568

1444

Eng., Scot., Fr. ...

1681

1702

1553

1451

Eng.

1640

1611

1513

1428

Ene.

1609

1570

1480

1363

Eng

1667

1660

1534

1400

Eng., Ir., Welch

1627

1681

1500

1395

Eng., Scot

1697

1725

1562

1446

Irish

1696

1673

1537

1456

German

1611

1650

1477

1392

Eng..

1603

1624

1495

1373

Enc. . .

1641

1634

1517

1405

Entr

1661

1605

1522

1432

Ene. .

1551

1615

1439

1341

Scot., Ger.

1590

1622

1456

1345

Eng., Ger.

1674

1725

1534

1424

Eng., Scot

1546

1560

1440

1307

Eng., Ger.

1562

1583

1446

1340

German . .

1584

1644

1465

1357

Eng., Dutch

1631

1595

1500

1402

Eng., Scot

1642

1694

1522

1400

100

Eng. . .

1612

1630

1485

1384

174

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

No.

Ht.

Juris.

Ht.
Acrom.

Ht.
Nipple

Ht.
Umbil.

Ht.
Sp-il.

Ht.
Troch.

Ht.
S-pub.

Ht.
Olecr.

Ht.

St-rad.

1421

1268

1064

1005

910'

899

1100

847

1366

1357

1233

990

961

897

875

1062

794

1356

1325

1205

1001

923

920

860

1029

790

1232

1205

899

831

773

767

937

717

1247

1242

1111

919

857

806

790

957

729

1375

1362

1237

1022

946

874

847

1049

800

1349

1344

1189

995

939

863

832

1036

799

1326

1315

983

940

845

838

1012

785

1291

1295

1169

955

919

841

808

S95

763

1379

1369

1246

1010

943

881

870

1061

757

1329

1316

1196

997

934

877

870

998

757

1450

1412

1276

1042

1008

939

913

1119

839

1426

1425

1223

1032

999

899

883

1126

837

1360

1365

1031

970

892

877

1106

825

1348

1351

970

917

843

819

1056

794

1283

1281

1137

918

852

872

775

993

762

1368

1361

1204

998

944

858

832

1056

800

1400

1385

1268

1050

996

947

920

1096

825

1232

1226

1102

898

837

782

756

948

725

1257

1264

1125

947

896

831

805

981

755

1340

1330

1192

966

919

832

823

1020

780

1354

1348

1219

1000

940

861

850

1056

790

1335

1327

1200

977

926

821

805

1029

787

1330

1325

1218

946

919

848

809

1031

790

1313

1282

1169

928

889

849

827

1005

782

1394

1354

....

1033

1003

919

907

1077

829

1410

1406

1010

991

908

872

1076

829

1332

1323

1191

991

912

854

821

1044

809

1267

1251

1144

920

889

807

748

955

744

30
31

1339

1341

1187

988

955

841

821

1057

790

1213

1207

1064

880

811

763

737

924

693

1401

1376

1048

951

907

886

1081

796

1365

1353

1227

1005

956

892

851

1039

783

1333

1301

1186

956

880

808

777

1011

781

1274

1247

921

884

829

804

980

737

1281

1253

1139

925

898

822

799

975

743

1372

1346

1235

995

921

855

822

1066

833

1306

1309

1165

942

902

813

769

1012

775

1333

1331

1196

963

903

840

809

1040

810

1328

1301

1189

957

909

845

825

1007

771

APPENDIX

175

No.

Ht.
Incis.

Ht.
Acrom.

Ht.
Nipple

Ht.
Umbil.

Ht.
Sp-il.

Ht.
Troch.

Ht.
S-pub.

Ht.
Olecr.

Ht.
St-rad.

1322

1290

1199

987

942

869

846

1019

759

1392

1363

1009

972

907

880

1091

832

1316

1300

1167

957

919

828

808

1033

808

1363

1338

1226

1039

937

887

875

1028

768

1306

1282

924

883

814

793

1061

778

1364

1330

992

926

835

808

1051

812

1281

1260

1152

927

860

808

774

998

756

1405

1385

1236

1023

988

910

881

1091

825

1391

1370

999

964

883

862

1093

843

1324

1310

980

936

890

877

1023

789

1307

1290

1162

943

892

842

790

1017

784

1313

1319

1015

927

872

838

1020

785

1372

1371

1246

1029

995

893

875

1080

836

1355

1321

1235

1004

926

860

841

1066

809

1411

1387

1270

1042

992

919

904

1063

809

1360

1341

923

832

824

1074

798

1436

1414

1280

1080

1013

980

897

1104

857

1268

1230

1137

907

859

806

773

977

755

1394

1369

1233

998

924

885

843

1088

837

1349
1300

1324

1004

955

895

868

1039

777

1290

1181

919

870

827

799

1026

800

1400

1362

1256

1010

953

881

856

1041

802

1325

1302

1189

968

925

885

846

1043

800

1360

1361

1233

1020

964

891

885

1080

838

1361

1349

1248

1030

966

911

879

1055

822

1306

1294

1170

964

914

875

836

1002

749

1360

1348

1242

1007

934

878

835

1045

803

1310

1292

1173

976

916

864

816

1012

773

1371

1355

1224

1024

970

S07

857

1061

820

1402

1370

1000

964

924

894

1115

831

1302

1282

960

890

852

800

1014

789

1315

1310

997

959

884

858

1039

788

1393

1353

1222

1009

931

868

847

1078

834

1354

1316

961

899

849

820

1050

799

1342

1326

1222

973

948

895

855

1062

807

1361

1336

1236

1026

969

905

889

1042

798

1284

1258

. . .

906

874

818

762

1006

769

1268

1242

928

874

826

768 971

755

1360

1335

1235

1000

909

884

834 1081

844

1387

1375

1243

1044

980

950

942 1062

815

176

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

No.

Ht.
Ineis.

Ht.
Acrom.

Ht.
Nipple

Ht.
Umbil.

Ht.
Sp-il.

Ht.
Troch.

Ht.
S-pub.

Ht.
Olecr.

Ht.

St-rad.

1371

1347

1211

1000

965

923

934

1047

820

1350

1339

1192

1020

938

890

840

1068

828

1310

1290

1191

985

920

869

817

1015

777

1354

1340

1213

983

915

865

821

1041

814

1326

1316

965

910

852

813

1027

790

1374

1333

1206

1046

990

893

865

1052

810

1387

1337

1020

957

902

876

1090

830

1310

1300

1175

969

910

861

814

1037

780

1319

1301

1210

974

912

860

855

1019

792

1342

1310

1199

957

900

845

850

1050

825

1366

1361

996

940

858

832

1008

828

1274

1268

1160

945

900

852

932

973

748

1295

1269

1143

931

900

850

830

1004

746

1361

1337

1207

1015

943

893

857

1048

807

1247

1238

1111

950

865

814

770

977

733

1272

933

860

842

789

1005

760

1301

1298

947

898

835

820

1010

758

1336

1322

973

930

865

855

1021

790

1344

1300

1012

952

895

1020

762

100

1316

1310

979

909

875

844

1047

772

APPENDIX

Height

Breadth

Length, breadth

Ht.
Dact.

Ht.
Knee

Ht.

Mall.

Biacr.

Crist.

Troch.

Mamm.

Foot

Spin.

Th-width

669

469

80 385

281

255

217

254

638

405

370

289

265

184

250

608

417

369

270

217

212

230

565

372

345

270

251

193

223

547

395

344

246

220

196

219

647

403

329

281

229

201

248

617

424

368 250

211

185

236

619

382

363 250

211

185

236

602

382

326 266

240

251

577

410

382 285

243

195

252

594

406

369

248

231

211

235

649

461

372

313

249

216

267

644

455

345

299

249

196 239

653

456

7 79

354

225

258

242

622

431

363

235

239

241

606

412

322

210

209

177

207

628

438

356

270

283

186

245

621 462

385

294

280

211

252

564 392

349

268

273

220

226

593

389

376

263

261

185

230

612

396

370

258

215

247

611

405

391

305

250

184

250

617

414

369

262

248

188

242

623

431

355

295

232

184

237

622

435

336

294

241

208

220

616

449

345

270

227

241

650

429

376

291

254

246

636 415

352

264

236

203

230

566

391

249

255

229

188

229

608

389

353

244

215

183

239

561

353

302

247

210

193

223

623

433

365

290

239

240

618

439

386

269

221

238

591

408

83 355

257

228

208

237

215

241

583

387

337

278

221

228

235

565

375

324

267

227

198

230

260

230

634

444

335

207

229

204

259

252

230

603

409

342

255

230 170

227

232

228

637

413

321

257

239

183

230

252

222

591

419

354

284

249 203

240

269

239

1-'

178

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Height

Breadth

Length, breadth

No.

Ht.
Dact.

Ht.
Knee

Ht.

Mall.

Biacr.

Crist.

Troch.

Mamm.

Foot

Spin.

Th-width

572

391

358

255

264

185

252

250

228

663

438

362

291

258

259

252

266

625

374

335

262

238

215

248

235

246

594

420

372

242

247

194

243

219

255

598

380

373

289

307

237

255

280

630

431

357

299

275

241

259

248

561

367

340

242

223

197

230

258

230

669

401

366

269

249

185

244

245

244

643

420

359

297

247

262

270

251

600

409

344

267

218

240

253

242

621

391

327

269

247

193

222

251

237

598

398

355

271

235

233

257

647

439

346

251

225

162

226

259

242

613

396

337

269

234

204

237

261

224

618

433

364

295

258

195

261

255

254

632

385

362

301

280

241

287

270

6S1

432

369

300

265

207

253

280

266

589

352

328

249

209

181

232

241

227

668

410

349

269

221

195

239

260

231

605

385

345

278

249

238

252

260

625

397

344

256

237

189

240

250

224

634

410

381

260

237

187

273

227

230

627

410

320

280

223

165

245

270

235

639

442

337

254

205

195

251

256

236

621

445

340

255

205

190

254

250

232

579

405

335

265

233

215

255

235

244

602

423

345

254

230

187

236

255

234

608

401

370

270

220

190

252

270

634

430

362

258

225

196

251

247

251

634

428

369

280

242

231

263

243

629

405

344

267

232

221

260

222

589

404

329

254

219

237

240

252

652

409

360

288

225

191

236

260

248

611

401

375

290

235

252

276

260

614

412

351

285

245

204

251

245

255

609

429

330

283

212

187

235

240

220

610

384

341

278

228

219

250

255

580

402

341

268

209

227

245

233

672

414

362

278

239

190

243

280

250

616

460

350

274

240

190

242

265

255

APPENDIX

179

No.

Height

Breadth

Length, breadth

Ht.
Dact.

Ht.
Knee

Ht.
Mall.

Biacr.

Crist.

Troch.

Mamin.

Foot

Spin.

Th-widtL

640

420

344

274

211

200

244

268

280

660

426

355

270

245

220

243

258

248

627

398

340

282

205

231

272

220

627

400

344

269

219

186

241

275

220

591

398

341

263

240

245

248

240

605

425

380

290

220

223

254

278

241

656

4Q5

340

271

221

249

258

238

564

407

347

295

222

170

239

280

235

624

412

357

272

209

250

236

249

243

635

417

341

280

230

175

238

262

225

663

439

350

295

260

242

280

250

567

407

345

289

218

181

228

280

230

602

431

310

275

216

215

228

255

222

603

414

370

286

227

201

257

268

241

562

390

339

254

219

160

227

250

225

585

400

335

281

250

262

247

227

592

390

341

284

229

. . .

239

279

235

622

422

347

279

243

241

270

234

585

423

365

262

218

. . .

247

262

255

100

603

420

341

275

250

239

270

238

180

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Sitting heights

Measurements of face and head

No.

Tli-
depth

Sht.

Vprm. Inst.

Aero.

Hlth.

Hbth.

Frbth.

In orb.

Zybrth.

904

651

594

587

188

149

100

120

861

631

569

547

101

143

101

121

880

629

562

556

184

137

115

825

605

551

531

184

150

106

125

830

581

527

522

184

152

106

116

885

645

587

561

190

149

100

124

852

639

555

548

186

J148

107

122

857

612

550

536

188

148

103

116

853

608

563

560

191

146

111

875

617

570

563

191

146

106

125

836

611

537

526

175

146

112

897

643

589

565

193

139

119

953

710

636

629

196

141

101

116

870

632

569

185-

148

105

111

868

634

585

584

188

140

111

126

835 1 590

568

557

180

141

103

890

628

565

562

181

149

102

120

875

628

577

567

187

151

106

124

840

601

533

527

186

146

102

112

827

589

540

525

196

154

103

121

803

658

608

598

187

144

104

125

890

643

583

562

193

151

104

119

889

646

583

561

188

155

108

118

869

640

562

561

189

140

111

861

637

561

556

183

145

100

116

868

628

558

539

185

151

118

903

655

589

585

194

143

101

120

864

628

576

539

186

144

116

833

592

529

508

177

148

105

113

861

630

549

543

178

145

102

112

843

600

539

520

182

148

103

114

861

640

571

551

185

146

107

123

867

629

555

537

187

150

113

172

914

668

618

589

188

146

104

123

173

821

591

537

510

191

150

121

144

825

582

541

514

194

143

109

182

896

666

603

579

187

147

105

122

165 843

621

546

545

180

148

104

115

168 860

613

559

555

183

147

115

165 853 623

552

529

193

150

100

120

APPENDIX

181

Sitting heights

. Measurements of face and head

No.

Th-
depth

Sht.

Vprm.

Inst.

Aero.

Hlth.

Hbth

Frbth.

Inorb.

Zybrth.

175

847

623

549

510

180

147

104

118

183

883

627

572

552

194

153

103

107

184

843

623

555

525

187

146

106

124

192

853

611

559

530

196

144

104

121

215

873

638

581

555

187

150

104

124

179

781

634

569

545

192

152

108

123

175

863

629

562

539

185

147

106

171

889

649

582

556

189

143

103

124

168

908

680

595

575

188

146

105

123

180

840

620

547

537

182

146

111

172

849

613

578

545

174

151

110

185

854

622

556

534

180

143

105

113

149

885

629

569

678

188

145

102

116

171

861

629

570

533

181

147

115

208

885

635

584

555

197

145

102

122

230

877

632

585

555

202

155

109

125

197

939

700

616

590

188

151

107

123

160

836

622

562

520

173

150

114

179

920

676

604

567

183

147

117

165

833

612

545

516

194

146

115

167

839

607

550

530

186

142

' 109

173

884

636

581

546

187

144

111

166

824

599

552

523

174

144

100

109

175

840

613

530

185

142

116

175

848

620

551

539

185

142

116

169

834

609

538

525

184

147

104

119

139

855

607

554

550

180

145

103

114

170

836

610

540

520

188

150

103

119

168

880

640

565

548

193

153

107

121

167

880

634

590

554

192

152

110

121

160

860

627

555

529

190

147

104

176

840

607

528

518

190

140

104

117

179

916

677

627

587

190

146

100

118

174

899

637

584

554

186

154

107

121

185

878

640

567

551

196

156

108

122

175

842

600

535

506

187

150

104

114

171

839

610

541

526

178

140

101

30,

109

168

830

581

526

512

181

145

101

109

165

907

660

585

561

185

148

106

120

180

893

638

593

577

200'

157

114

133

182

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Sitting heights

Measurements of head and face.

No.

Th-
depth

Sht.

Vprm.

Inst.

Aero.

Hlth.

Hbth.

Frbth.

Inorb.

Zybrth.

182

873

641

560

540

191

150

102

116

173

840

622

555

540

183

147

102

108

165

846

602

550

535

185

149

100

113

176

892

641

590

575

178

149

103

118

180

856

621

556

534

186

150

113

175

887

630

558

525

194

145

117

161

897

661

591

541

192

150

102

116

160

855

620

545

527

180

143

114

154

842

621

546

519

176

144

102

123

160

851

614

546

521

173

146

106

190

893

663

603

597

191

150

120

130

139

811

600

530

515

189

145

101

114

154

824

592

534

514

186

146

104

118

185

885

636

576

552

189

152

107

119

165

824

579

526

184

138

110

167

856

626

570

132

142

103

104

167

835

613

557

547

187

144

101

115

182

856

627

572

544

183

143

101

117

165

947

608

543

500

192

144

111

107

100 j 187

841

820

542 j 542

181

149

103

114

APPENDIX

183

Measurements of head and face

Color of

No.

Brdth.
BMML

Chin
to
hair

Chin
to
nas.

Nas-

I'fOS.

Lth.
nose

Brdth.
nose

Lth.
ear

Brdth.
ear

Eyes

Hair

Skin

. 94

174

Ill

106

163

173

110

104

164

108

175

111

102

189

119

169

110

172

116

174

111

102

172

108

176

110

174

119

101

172

113

172

107

109

175

110

173

108

180

110

108

190

120

180

115

106

183

119

174

108

106

181

115

180

115

171

110

169

111

189

132

. 58

101

185

123

175

117

. 95

166

108

196

124

182

118

108

165

117

169

113

103

168

113

175

112

105

180

117

163

109

189

118

169

109

40 103

185

122

184

LABORATORY MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY

No.

Measurements of head and face

Color of

Brdth.
mand.

Chin
to
hair

Chin
to
nas.

Nas-
pros.

Lth.
nose

Brdth.
nose

Lth.
ear

Brdth.
ear

Eyes

Hair

Skin

170

110

101

185

115

101

175

112

171

115

107

162

110

105

173

118

100

175

120

101

171

121

105

185

123

103

172

116

175

112

100

160

108

176

118

179

123

181

125

103

187

126

102

169

115

177

113

176

115

175

114

163

108

179

116

167

110

188

122

185

122

170

118

168

111

167

120

177

122

102

180

119

180

123

104

176

112

108

181

122

104

183

123

109

171

119

187

125

184

118

165

110

182

120

108

184

122

APPENDIX

185

Measurements of head and face

Color of

No.

Brdth.
mand.

Chin
to
hair

Chin
to
nas.

Nas-
pros.

Lth.
nose

Brdth.
nose

Lth.
ear

Brdth.
ear

Eyes

Hair

Skin

186

127

175

112

182

117

101

168

104

176

113

100

185

125

184

119

179

113

104

165

104

177

119

105

183

118

165

115

100

171

110

100

183

118

162

109

175

115

173

113

187

121

186

121

100

170

110

INDEX

Acanthion, 42, 47

Acetabulum, diameters of, 112

Acromion, 152, 155

Acropodion, 152

ADACHI, B., 4, 7, 105, 107, 109, 136

ADACHI, MME, 4, 136

Alare, 151

Alveolo-condylar plane, 37

Alveolon, 42

Angle, or angles, facial, 4, 36, 71

mandibular, 53

of calcaneus, 142

of femur, 128

of hutaerus, 84-87

of inclination of ilium, 114

of inclination of pelvis, 115

of inclination of sacrum, 115

of pelvis, 114

of radius 101, 102, 104

of sacrum, 121

of scapula, 82

of skull, 69-76

of talus, 139

of tibia, 133-135

of ulna, 92, 94, 95

on head of living subject, 159, 160

sub-pubic, 114
An thropo meter, It. 12, 13
Anthropometric instruments, list of, 8
Apollo Belvidere, 1
Arithmetical mean, 29
Asterion, 42
Auric ulare, 42

Auriculo-bregmatic height, 50, 54
Average, 29

Basilo-bregmatic height, 50
Basion, 43

Basion-bregma height line, 55, 57
Basion-lambda line, 58
BERTILLON, A., 2, 9, 10
Biauricular breadth, 54
Bicondylar breadth, 52
Bigonial breadth, 52

Bimastoid breadth, 50, 54

Biometric methods, 26-33

Biorbital breadth, 54

Bizygomatic breadth, 50

BOLK, 62

BOULE, 80

Brain weight, percentage of to cranial

capacity, 62
Bregma of living, 151

of skull, 40, 43
Bregma position line, 56, 58
BROCA P., 1, 5, 13, 25, 37, 40, 48, 75, 87,
145

Calcaneus, 140

angles of, 142

indices of, 142

measurements of; 140, 141
Calipers, 9

Bertillon's type of, 10

Flower's type of, 10, 11
Calvarial base, 57
Calvarial height line, 56, 58
CAMPER, P., 4, 5, 36, 71
Carpus, 108,109
Cervicale, 152, 163
Challenger expedition, 2, 4, 110
CHARLES, H., 135
Cheilion, 151
Cheirometry, 35

Clavicle, measurements of, 83, 84
CLOQUET, J., 37, 38
Clothing, weight of, 162
Coccyx, 163

Coefficient of variation, 32
Collo-diaphyseal angle, of femur, 128
Collo-diaphyseal angle, of radius. 101,

102

Condylion laterale, 43
Condylion mediale, 43
Condylo-diaphyseal angle, of femur, 128
Conjugata diagonalis (skeleton), 111
Conjugata externa (skeleton), 111
Conjugata vera (skeleton), 111
Control skull, 19
Coronale, 43

187

188

INDEX

Coronion, 43

Cranial arc, total, 55

Cranial breadth, maximum, 49

Cranial capacity, 52, 59-61

Cranial height, 50

Cranial length, maximum, 49, 56

Cranio-basal length, 57

Craniometer, 9

Craniometry, 35, 40

Craniophore, 10, 39

Craniophore, cubic, 20, 21, 40

Crinion, 151

Cristal breadth, 29, 30, 31

Cubital angle, of humerus, 86

CUNNINGHAM, 78

Cushion for holding skull, 22, 40

CzEKANOWSKi, 3

Dacryon, 43
Dactylion, 153, 155
DE HOYOS, 3
DERRY, 116, 118
Deviation, 30

average, 31, 32

standard, 32
Diagraph, of Martin, 24
Diameters, of pelvic basin, 111
Dioptograph, of Lucse, 23, 24
Dispersion, coefficient of, 33
Divergence of ilia, 115
DUCKWORTH, 3, 7, 87, 158
DWIGHT, 123

ECKER, 38
Ectocanthion, 151
EctoconcHon, 43
Ectomolare, 43
Endinion, 45
Endocanthion, 151
Endomolare, 44
Euryon of living, 151

of skull, 41, 44
Extremum occiput, 47

Face, of living, land marks of, 151, 152
Facial angle, 4, 36, 71

depth, 57

length, superior, 57
total, 58

Femur, angles of, 128

curvature of shaft of, 129

indices of, 125-128

measurements of, 122-124
Fibula, indices of, 136

measurements of, 136
Finger-print system, 2
FISCHER, E., x, 4, 7, 54, 88, 89, 90, 94,

95, 97, 98, 102, 104, 105
Flower's type of caliper, 10, 11, 82
Foot, skeleton of, 136, 137
Frankfort horizontal, 38, 40, 47, 48
FRASSETTO, F., x, 3, 156, 158
FREDERIC, 7
French horizontal, 38
Frequency curves, 27
Frontal arc, 55

breadth, greatest, 50
least, 50

chord, 55, 58

perpendicular, 58
Frontomalare orbitale, 44

temporale, 44
Frontotemporale of living, 5, 151

of skull, 44, 47

G ALTON, F., 2

GARSON, J. G., 38, 82

Geneva, international agreement of, 157,

158
Genion, 44

GlUPFRIDA-RUGGERI, 3

Glabella, of living, 151

of skull, 40, 44, 47
Glabella-inion length, 49, 53
Gnathion, of living, 151

of skull, 44

Gnathion-basion length, 54
GODIN, 3
GOLDSTEIN, 38
Goniometer, clamp-on type of, 14

Mollison's, 14-16

stationary, 5
Gonion, of living, 151

of skull, 44
Greatest frontal breadth, 50

HAMY, 3, 49

Hand, bones of, 105-109

HASEBE, 4, 78, 137

INDEX

189

Head of living, landmarks of, 151, 152
HENNIG, 110
HENRY, E. R., 2
HERVE, 3, 49

HlLLEBRAND, 3

Hip-girdle, 109

His, 38

Holder, universal, 22

HOLTBT, 122

Horizontal circumference of skull, 52, 54

needle, 21
Horizontals used in orientation of skull,

35-40

Hormion, 45
HRDLICKA, 3
Humerus, angles of, 84-87

indices of, 84

measurements of, 84
HUMPHREY, 1
HUNTINGTON, G. S., 105
HUXLEY, 69

Ilia, divergence of, 115

Iliocristale, 153

Iliospinale anterius, 153

Iliospinale posterius, 153

Ilium, length-breadth measurements, 112

Inclination angle of pelvis, 115

of sacrum, 115

of ilium, 114
Indian skulls, Southern New England,

169, 170

Indices, derived from the median sagittal
craniogram, 68

intermembral, 144-147

method of computing, 26

of calcaneus, 142

of cranium, 62-65

of face, 65-67

of femur, 125-128

of fibula, 136

of humerus, 84

of living body, 164-167

of patella, 130

of pelvic brim, 110, 113

of sacrum, 118-121

of scapula, 82

of talus, 138

of tibia, 131, 132

of weight and capacity of cranium,
69

pelvic, 113

Indices, pilastric, of femur, 125, 126
platycnemic, of tibia, 131
platymeric, of femur, 125, 126
showing relations between cranium
and face, 67, 68

Inferior facial depth, 57

Infradentale, 45, 46

Inion, of living, 151, 163
of skull, 40, 45

Intermembral indices, 144-146

International Congress of Anthropolo-
gists (1906) ix, 3, 7, 38, 48, 49, 158

International Congress of Anthropolo-
gists, (1912), 157, 158

Interorbital breadth,* 51, 54

Intertuberal breadth, 111

Ischium, length of, 1 12

Joint-axis angle of ulna, 94
K

KLAATSCH, H., 122, 136
Klition, 45, 48

KNIGHT, MARIAN V., 169, 170
KOGANEI, 4, 89, 110

Labio men tale, 153

Labrale inferius, 151

Labrale superius, 151

Lacrimale, 45

Lambda, 45

Lambda calvarial height, 58

LAMONT, 129, 135

Landmarks, of head and face, 151, 152

of skull, 40-48

of trunk and limbs, 152-155
Lateral divergence angle of ulna, 95
LAZARUS, 136
Least frontal breadth, 50
LEHMANN-NITSCHE, 4, 89, 99, 122, 131
Length of limb bones relative to stature,

147

Limbs of living, landmarks of, 152-155
Linguale, 46
Lingulare, 46
LISSAUER, 3, 23, 49
Living subject, angles of head of, 159

calculated measurements of, 163, 164

girths on head of, 159, 160

190

INDEX

Living subject, indices of, 164-167

landmarks of, 151-155

measurements on head of, 158, 159

measurements of trunk and limbs
of, 160-162

weight of, 162
LrvoN, 82
LOHR, 116
Lordosis, 76
LOTH, E., 3, 143
LUCAE, 23
Lumbale, 1 63
Lumbar , 77

LTJSCHAN, v., 3, 49 . > r v

MACCURDY, G. G., 3

MALL, F. B., 96

Mandible, height of body of, 53

thickness of body of, 53
Mandibular angle, 53

length, 55

MANNERS-SMITH, 4, 137, 143
MANOUVRIER, 3, 62, 147, 166
MARRET, 3

MARTIN, x, 11, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 61,
63, 66, 82, 86, 87, 129, 130, 136,
145, 146, 151
Mastoidale, of living, 151

of skull, 46
Maxillary breadth, 55
Maxillo-alveolar breadth, 51
Maxillo-alveolar length, 51
Maxillofrontale, 46
MA YET, 3

Mean, arithmetical, 29
Measurements, calculated, of living sub-
ject, 163, 164

of calcaneus, 140

of femur, 122-124

of fibula, 136

of head of living, 158-160

of humerus, 84

of living, technique of, 155-158

of patella, 129, 130

of trunk and limbs of living, 160-162

of sacrum, llti-118

of scapula, 80-82

of skull, 49-55

of talus, 1 8

of tibia, 130, 131
Mentale, 46
Mesosternale, 151, 153

Metacarpale laterale, 153

Metacarpale mediale, 153

Metatarsale laterale, 153

Metatarsale mediale, 153

Metatarsals, 143

Metopion, 152

Midvalue, of a group, 29

MOCHI, 3

Mode, in a frequency curve, 29

MOLLISON, 14H6, 82, 131

Monaco, international agreement of, x, 3,

48, 49
MORTON, ix

MUSGROVE, 3

NAGEL, 96
Nasal breadth, 50
Nasal length, 50
Nasion, of living, 152

of skull, 47

Nasion-basion line, 50, 55
Nasion-gnathion line, 50
Nasion-inion line, 54
Nasion-lambda line, 58
Nasion-prosthion line, 50
Nasospinale, 42, 47, 48, 50
Novara Expedition, 2

Obelion, 47

Obturator foramen, diameters of, 112

Occipital arc, 55

Occipital breadth, 55

Occipital chord, 55, 58

Occipital foramen, length and breadth of,

Occipitale, 47

Olecranal fossa, perforation of, 87
Olecrano-coronoid angle, of ulna, 92
Omphalion, 153
Ophryon, of living, 152

of skull, 47, 48
Opisthion, 47
Opisthocranion, of living, 152

of skull, 44, 45, 47
Orale, 47

Orbital breadth, 51, 54
Orbital height, 51
Orbitale of living, 152

of skull, 47

INDEX

191

Orbito-alveolar height, 51

Orientation of skull, 35-40

Os coxa), length and breadth of, 112

Os pubis, length of, 112

OSAWA, 4, 110

Ossa coxa), 109, 110-116

Ossa innominata (see Ossa coxae).

Osteometric board of Broca, 13

Osteometry, 35

Osteophore of Wetzel, 22

Otobasion inferius, 152

Otobasion superius, 152

Palatal breadth, 51
Palatal length, 51
PAPILLAULT, ix, 3, 49, 158
Parallelograph, 16-19
Parietal arc, 55
Parietal chord, 55, 58
Parietal perpendicular, 58
PARSONS, 83, 122, 123
Patella, indices of, 130

measurements of, 116
Peabody Museum, Harvard University,

54
Pelvic basin, depth of, 112

angles, 114

brim index, 110, 113

height, breadth, and depth, 110

indices, 113 ,

skeleton, 109
Pelvimeter, 10, 110
Pelvis, sexual differences in, 116
Perigraph of Lissauer, 23, 25
PFITZNER, W., 105, 107, 137
Phalanges, of foot, 143

of hand, 107, 108
Phalangion, 153
Physiological length, of femur, 122

of radius, 98

of tibia, 134

of ulna, 88

Pilastric index, of femur, 125, 126
PITTARD, 3, 49

Platycnemic index, of tibia, 131
Platymeric index, of femur, 125, 126
Podometry, 35
Pogonium, 47
Porion, 47

Position of living subject, 155-158
Postaurale, 152
Pozzi, 3, 49

Preaurale, 152
Pronasale, 152
Prosphenium, 47
Prosthion, of living, 152
of skull, 45, 47, 48
Prosthion-basion line, 50
Pternion, 153
Pteryon, 41, 47
Pubic symphysis, length of, 112

Radiale, 1^4, 155

Radius, 9o A 05

RADLAUER, 4, 117, 118, 119, 120

RAHON, 149

Ramus of mandible, breadth, 52

Ramus of mandible, length, 52

REICHER, 4, 137, 140, 141

Rhinion, 48

Ribs, 80

RIVET, 3, 158

Rod compass, 12, 13

ROLLET, 147

ST. HILAIRE, G. DE, 36, 37
Sacral inclination angle, 115
Sacrum, 109

angles of, 121

indices of, 118-121

measurements of, 116-118'
Sagittal cranial arc, 51
SAWALISCHIN, MARIE, 65
Scapula, angles of, 82

indices of, 82

measurements of, 80-82

SCHLAGINHAUFEN, O., X, 3, 21, 54,

158

SCHWALBE, G., 6, 7, 58, 70, 80
Sciatic tuber, 163

Sculptors of Greece and Rome, 1, 4
SERGI, G., 3, 6, 49
SEWELL, S., 4, 137, 139
Sexual differences in pelvic bones,

116

Skull, angles of, 69-76
horizontals of, 35-40
landmarks of, 40-48
acanthion, 42, 47
alveolon, 42
auriculare, 42

192

INDEX

Skull, landmarks of, basion, 43
bregma, 43
condylion laterale, 43
condylion mediale, 43
coronale, 43
coronion, 43
dacryon, 43
ectoconchion, 43
ectomolare, 43
endinion, 45
endomolare, 44
euryon, 44

frontomalare orbitale, 44
frontomalare temporale, 44
frontotemporale, 44, 47
glabella, 44, 47
gnathion, 44
gonion, 44
hormion, 45
infradentale, 45, 46
inion, 45
klition, 45, 48
lacrimale, 45
lambda, 45
linguale, 46
lingulare, 46
mastoidale, 46
maxillofrontale, 46
mentale, 46
nasion, 47
nasospinale, 47, 18
obelion, 47
occipitale, 47
ophryon, 47, 48
opisthion, 47
opisthocranion, 44, 45, 47
orale, 47
orbitale, 47
pogonion,! 47
porion, 4?
prosphenion, 47
prosthion, 47, 48
pteryon, 47
rhinion, 48
sphenoidale, 48
staphylion, 48
stephanion, 48
subspinale, 48
supraglabellare, 48
tylio , 45, 48
vertex, 48
zygion, 48
zygomaxillare, 48
measurements of, 4955

Skull, norms of, 39, 40

orientation of, 35-40
Smith College students, measurements
of, 171-185

SOLLAS, 3

Somatometry, 35
Spherion, 154
Spinal breadth, 111
Spino-symphyseal plane, 110
Standard deviation, 32
Stereograph, of Broca, 25
Sternum, 80
Stomion, 152
Stylion, 154, 155
Subaurale, 152
Subnasale, 152, 163
Subpubic angle, 114
Superaurale, 152
Superior facial length, 57
Supracondyloid notch, 87
Suprasternale, 154, 163
Symphyseal height, of mandible, 52
Symphysion, 154, 163

Table, leveling, 22
Talus, angles of, 139

indices of, 138

measurements of, 138

orientation of, 137
Tape measure, 13
Tarsus, 142, 143
Thelion, 154, 156
THOMSON, 135
Tibia, angles of, 133-135

indices of, 131, 132

measurements of, 130, 131
Tibiale, 154
TOPINARD, 25, 75
TOROK, A. v., 5, 7
Torsion, of femur, angle of, 128

of humerus, angle of, 84

of radius, angle of, 104
Tragion, 152
Tragus, 163

Transverse cranial arc, 52
Trichion, 152
Trochanterion, 154

Trunk of living, landmarks of, 152-155
Tuberculare, 152
TURNER, W., 4, 76, 77, 78, 82, 88, 99,

110, 113, 114, 122, 145
Tylion, 45, 48

INDEX

193

UHLBACH, 105, 107, 108, 136
Ulna, 88-98

Variation, coefficient of, 32, 33
range of, 31

VERNEAU, 3, 49

Vertebrae, volume of, 78, 79

Vertebral column, 76

Vertex, 48, 152

VIBCHOW, H., 137, 144

VOGT, 75

VOLKOV, 3, 4, 136, 143, 144

Volume, of cranial cavity, 19
of orbit of eye, 19
of vertebrae, 78, 79

WALDEYER, 3, 49

WASHINGTON, MARGARET, 171-185

Weight of body, 19, 20, 162

of clothing, 162
WEISSGERBER, 3
" WELCKER, H., 61, 75
WENTWORTH, B., 2
WETZEL, 22, 78
WHITE, 1

ZAAIJER, 110
Zygion, of living, 152

of skull, 48
Zygomaxillare, 48